Computer Supported Cooperative Work CSCW

1
Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW)

• CSCW considers sociological as well as technical
  issues
• effective interpersonal communication is needed
• groups are dynamic and not always predictable
• effects of CSCW can be unpredictable
• costs and benefits are difficult to evaluate

2
Face to Face Communication

• face to face communication involves
• speech
• hearing
• gesture
• eye gaze
• body language

3
Transfer Effects

• social norms are carried forward to computer
  mediated communication
• people can adjust but it takes time/training
• success often depends on use of existing norms
• when rules are broken we dont always realise the
  problem
• different cultures have different norms
• personal space problems can be carried over to
  video

4
Eye Contact Gaze

• prolonged eye contact can be emotionally
  disturbing
• avoiding eye contact can be suspicious
• maintaining eye contact is a power signal
• facial expressions are meaningful
• direction of gaze can be meaningful in
  conversation about artefacts
• restriction of field or change of viewing angle
  can cause problems

5
Gestures Body Language

• conversation is full of deictic references (e.g.
  put that there)
• video design can capture this (or not)
• group pointer can help
• shared work surfaces are useful

6
Back Channels

• nods, grimaces, quizzical looks, shrugs etc.
• sub-verbal communication
• insufficient back-channel communication can be
  confusing (are you still listening/there, has the
  machine crashed, line disconnected etc.)
• people are reasonably adaptable, but there can be
  problems

7
Turn Taking

• role of speaker and listener reversed
• back channels provide important signals
• interruptions may be regarded as rude
• gaps in speech often signal an invitation to
  reply
• sub-verbal signals can be invitations or blocking
  signals
• lack of back channel response can signal lack of
  understanding
• time lag or simplex (or semi-duplex) technology
  can cause problems

8
Conversation

• We need to be careful in analysing captured data
  from conversations for any reason because of
• conversational structure
• adjacency pairs
• question-response or statement-agreement
• may be nested
• context
• internal context - dependence on earlier
  utterances
• external context - dependence on the environment
• topics
• topic focus may subtly change
• there may be ambiguity about the topic due to
  external context

9
Conversation (2)

• forms of utterance
• substantive - directly relevant to topic
• annotative - clarification, elaboration etc.
• procedural - about the process of collaboration
  itself or the technology supporting it
• breakdown
• failure to maintain a shared focus
• easy to detect in normal conversation, repair
  quite easy
• electronic communication reduces bandwidth, so
  breakdown more difficult to detect, repair thus
  more difficult to effect
• shared understanding
• develops through conversation
• speaker needs a model of the listeners
  understanding
• interaction corrects misinterpretation and
  confirms understanding

10
Speech act theory

• classifies speech as generic conversations
• conversation for action
• conversation for clarification
• conversation for possibilities
• conversation for orientation
• This was used in the design of Coordinator - a
  form of structured e-mail and an early CSCW tool
  (Winograd Flores, Stanford).
• Refer to Dix et. al. for details - especially
  criticisms.

11
Text Based Communication

• The dominant medium for asynchronous
  communication.
• Four common types in groupware
• discrete
• directed messages e.g. e-mail
• no explicit connection between different messages
• linear
• messages added in order to the end of a single
  transcript
• non-linear
• messages linked in a hypertext fashion
• spatial
• messages arranged on a 2-D surface

12
Text Based Communication (2)

• lack of back channel responses
• no confirmation of understanding
• more difficult to find common ground
• often uses stronger language than speech
• longer response timescale - turn taking problems
  if more than two participants

13
Text Based Communication (3)

• lack of external context
• deictic reference difficult
• superior reviewability (easier to refer back)
• coping mechanisms
• multiplexing i.e. combining several different
  conversations
• eagerness i.e. anticipating a number of possible
  responses

14
Group Dynamics

• Successful CSCW systems must cope with the
  following
• roles in groups change rapidly and frequently
• inversion of authority can occur c.f. MD and
  Captain on a cruise liner
• group membership can change making review
  necessary

15
Organisational Issues

• symmetry of benefit
• do the people who do the work get a fair share of
  the benefit
• free riders
• people who take out without contributing
• critical mass
• not everyone uses the system
• there are costs to be recovered

16
Organisational Issues (2)

• cooperation or conflict
• can we assume cooperation?
• people have conflicting goals
• changing power structures
• CSCW may change power structures
• easy to communicate across hierarchies or to
  leapfrog the boss
• authority is easier to exert face to face
• invisible workers
• some users of CSCW may be remote workers
• do remote workers lose out ?