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1
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The Physiological Path to Psychology

• The place of the brain
• Aristotle Can not be a central organ in
  behavior.
• No blood
• Non sensitive to touch
• Fairly unimpressive
• The place is the heart. The brain a cooler for
  the blood
• Descartes Centrality of brain
• A link between physiological events in the brain
  (e.g., stroke and behavior change).
• Hales (early 18th) Pinches a frogs nerve and
  leg moves
• Later electricity is discovered and Galvani
  produces a movement in frogs leg by electrical
  current (the myth of electricity
  Frankenstein-).
• Schwann (early 19th) discovered the nerve cell

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The Question of localization of psychological
functions in the brain- The story begins with
Franz Gal

• Franz Gal (1758-1828)
• Among contributions (1) The link between the 2
  hemispheres, (2) a link between complexity of
  psychological functions an organism can perform
  and the surface of cortex.
• Phrenology
• The basic idea
• 27 areas in the brain for faculties such as
  memory, honesty, passion, etc.,
• When highly developed affects structure of skull
• Craniometry
• His memory of his bright class mates (front of
  eyes)
• Gals passionate widow (back of skull)
• But not always
• Messenger boys should be thieves, but when not-
  Honesty region developed and compensates for
  acquisitiveness area.

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• Localization? YES. Not only for simple behaviors
  (leg movements) but also for complex human
  qualities/behaviors
• A good scientific theory? On the one hand Yes-
  parsimonious.
• Yet
• Why only 27? Why not 2700? Why not 7?
• The assumption that skull reflects brain is
  erroneous
• Circular. You can explain anything by referring
  to an interaction between regions. Can refute.
• Very influential in 19th century Europe.
  Phrenological clinics a sort of first
  psychotherapy (talk about skull structure and its
  implications/consequences for ones life, etc.,)

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Localization? NO- Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)

• Among his major physiological contributions
  Discovery of respiratory center in brain
  (medulla) and function of cerebellum in
  coordinated behavior
• Methodology Franz Gal- Craniometry, Flourens in
  Ablation.
• His conclusion NO localization.
• Performed an ablation on what Gal described as
  the area of passion (cerebellum) and sees
• The animal lost gradually the faculty of orderly
  and regular movement soon he could walk only by
  staggering in zig-zag he fell each time he
  wanted to advance when he wanted to turn to the
  right, he turned to the left.
• What I did was to destroy the ability for an
  overall orderly behavior. Therefore No
  localization The brain as one unit works to
  produce an orderly behavior.

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• Distinguishes between action propre and action
  commune. The first refers to simple actions
  which may be localized and the second to more
  complex functions that involve the whole brain.
• He also discovers that the larger the destroyed
  area in the brain- the more functions disappear
  simoltaneously. (supports the idea of
  no-localization)
• Rehabilitation of destroyed functions in the
  brain (supports the idea of no-localization)

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• Criticism Gals followers called Flourens and
  his disciples the mutilators. Claimed that his
  ablation techniques are crude and many areas are
  hurt at the same time (there is truth to that)
• Flourens and the Cartesian Dualism Action Propre
  and Action Commune comparable to Animal Spirits
  and Rational Soul
• The ideas are similar but the methodologies,
  sophistication and knowledge base are very
  dissimilar
• The next stage Language centers in the brain

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• Is there a specific region in the brain that is
  responsible for the production of language (The
  Human Quality)? Gal- YES, Flourens- NO
• Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)
• Stroke Turned Mute, only when agitated what a
  fool am I. Linked to change look on face.
• Boyard, Aubertine, Brocas, Wernicke
• Boouillard (1796-1881) Gals student Willing to
  pay frontal lobes
• Aubertine (son in law) OK. I have a wounded
  soldier when I press loses speech
• Paul Broca (1824-1880) My tan and sacre nom
  de dieux.
• Brocas patient died 5 days before Aubertines.
  In 1861 presented his results of autopsy in the
  French Anthropological Society. Brocas area
  Responsible for the ability to speak.

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• Karl Wernicke Discovers an area in the brain
  that is responsible for the understanding of
  words that are spoken (not the production of
  speech). The person says sentences that have
  correct structure, but invents new words and does
  not make sense
• Boy Im sweating, Im awful nervous you know.
  Once in a while I get caught up, I cant mention
  the teripoy A month ago, quite a little Ive
  done a lot well. I impose a lot but on the other
  hand you know what I mean.
• What is he a schizophernic? No- his Wernickes
  area is damaged.

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• Fritsch Hitzig (early 20th century) Electric
  stimulation of areas in cortex caused movement.
  The sensory-motor area.
• What is the model of the brain in the beginning
  of the 20th century?
• Sensory stimuli enter the sensory areas
• Are kept as memories near the visual area
• Memories are connected with the white stuff that
  we have a lot of in the brain and which does not
  seem to have a specific function. There
  associations are created.

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• Leshley Worked in the first half of the 20th
  century- Died in 1959
• A link between experimental techniques in
  psychology and physiological methods
• Teach rats to run a maze, operate on it, destroy
  a specific area and see if memory is retained and
  to what extent?
• Is there localization? NO. Learning and Memory
  are scattered throughout the brain.
• When destroys a relatively large area (no matter
  where in the brain) more learning and memory is
  hurt. A small lesion does not do as much damage
  to learning and memory.
• Thus Learning and memory are scattered all over
  the brain (reminiscent of action commune)
• Law of mass action The larger the area you
  destroy the more the behavior is damaged.
• Equipotentialities Since the brain acts as one
  undifferentiated unit, when you hurt one part
  another can take over- Rehabilitation of
  functions-
• The Hypothesis about Redundancy The brain stores
  learning in many areas in the brain. It seems
  like a waste but is evolutionary important.

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• Direct Stimulation of the Brain
• Batholow in 1874 in CIncinati had a young feeble
  minded patient with a cancerous growth in brain.
  Exposed brain and stimulated in electrically
• her countenance exhibited great distress. She
  began to cry Very soon the left hand was
  extended as if looking for something The arm was
  agitated her eyes became fixed and pupils
  dilated (as if seeing something frightening).
  Then she fainted and became unconcious
• Ethically dubious, but

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• Penfield (died in the end of 1970s)
• Performed many such brain stimulation studies.
• Tells us that he encountered 2 basic responses
• Interpretative cortex as a result of electric
  stimulation the person reinterprets the existing
  reality (e.g., the room he is in is suddenly
  reinterpreted)
• Experiential cortex Re-experiencing past events
  (e.g., a 6 year old birthday). A very elaborate
  memory with a quality of real re-experiencing.
• At the end of his career he writes that in all
  the decades that he did these studies he never
  encountered a place which when stimulated
  produces an active and new behavior (e.g., making
  a decision, sense of humor, a creative
  response). Where is that located at?? Back to
  Descartes
• Because it seems to me certain that it will
  always be quite impossible to explain the mind on
  the basic of neural action within the brain, and
  because it seems to me that the mind matures
  independently throughout an individuals life as
  though it were a continuing element, Im forced
  to choose the proposition that our being is to be
  explained on the basis of two fundamental
  elements

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• Surprising. What is that mind? Spirit
  Probably not. Maybe the extremely complex
  simultaneous operation of the whole brain.
  Regardless- There are two levels of analysis to
  understand human behavior.
• --------------------------------------------------
  ------------------------------------
• Gal, Flourens, Broca, Wernicke, Fritsch HItzig,
  Leshely, Penfield
• Is there an absolute and definite answer? NO. But
  going around this question in concentric circles
  with ever improved research techniques our
  knowledge is continuously expanding.

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The importance of Metaphors in Psychology
(Soyland, 1994).

• Metaphors are Promissory notes. They enable
  communication and point the direction
• They rest on the technological progress of the
  time
• Freuds model of personality dynamics in terms of
  steam engine
• Pribram (1960s) when dealing with the question
  of localization of memories relies on the
  Hologram as a metaphor to guide theory
• The hologram now provides an explicit modelthe
  hypothesis is that information is stored like in
  a hologram and is thus resistant to injury
• Cognitive theories use the metaphor of parallel
  processing
• Leshley No localization Knowledge is arranged
  in circles. It is like throwing a stone into
  water. There are circles (less clear) far from
  where the stone hit the water.

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Mid Way Into the Science of Psychology

• The 4 gates into modern psychological science
• Physiological processes (the problem of
  localization)
• From Psychophysics to Experimental Psychology
  Structuralism (the problem of perception and
  cognition)
• Coping and adjustment Functionalism
• Psychoanalysis (the problem of levels of
  consciousness, and adjusted/maladjusted
  personality).

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From Psychophysics to Experimental Psychology A
prelude to structuralism

• Translating Physical Energy to a Psychological
  sensation
• Johannes Muller (1801-1858)
• Specifity of neural transmission
• (William James If you attach the auditory nerve
  to the visual cortex and the visual nerve to the
  auditory cortex we would have seen the thunder
  and heard the lightning)
• But although an important physiologist he is
  also a German romanticist the force of Vitalism
  in nature. Physiological processes are tied
  together by the force of Vitalism

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• Hermann Helmholtz (1821-1894)
• As a child in Germany received a scholarship to
  continue his studies in Physics.
• The importance of the university in Germany
• The advanced nature of giving a scholarship to a
  gifted child who comes from the middle classes
• After finishing medical studies learned with
  Muller, heard the ideas about Vitalism, but went
  the opposite direction
• Everything needs to be explained by
  bio-chemical/physical forces (mechanistic
  approach)
• The oath of DuBois Raymond
• No other forces than the common physical ones are
  acting within the organism
• In 1847 published a paper on the conservation of
  energy. Was discharged from the army

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• Contributions
• The speed of neural transmission is measurable
  and finite and not mysterious and infinite (like
  Vitalists would claim)
• 30 meters per second Frogs leg. How
  determined? Empirically
• 100 meters per second- Humans. How determined?
  Empirically.
• The translations of sensations into perceptions
  occurs in the cortex. It is done according to
  laws which are not inborn (Kant, Leinbitz, etc.,)
  but learned. We learn the law of closure from
  endless repeated encounters and not because our
  brain is so wired.
• This contrasts the conception of a law of
  perception in the Gestalt sense with the concept
  of learned mental set.
• Performed the experiment with people wearing
  glasses that tilt the world 10 degrees to the
  right. When returning to normal environment Had
  to relearn.
• Color Perception Any color we can think of can
  be attained by mixing Red, Green and Deep Blue.
  But we dont view these different colors, but
  experience the resultant color. How? There must
  be cells in the retina that are sensitive to
  different wave lengths and when they fire at
  once we get the feeling of a specific color.
• Turns out to be true the Young-Helmholtz theory
  of color perceptions.

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Psychophysics

• Ernst Weber (1795-1878) The concept of JND (Just
  Noticeable Difference). The concept of Threshold.
  
• Determined by asking people to weigh small
  weights and say when they are different or equal.
  
• The physical energy is translated into
  psychological sensation in a known and constant
  ratio.
• Sophisticated research and thinking. As an
  example Difference when I tell you lift the
  weights and place them on both hands from I lay
  the weights on your hands. In the second case
  less sensitive (e.g., 140 vs. 240). Why? In the
  first case we get feedback from more muscle
  groups.
• Fechner (1801-1887). Translated this principle of
  JND into a mathematical formula. A believer in
  the cosmic soul.

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The Father of Scientific Psychology Wilhelm
Wundt (1832-1920).

• 1879- Leipzig 2 rooms, 15 years later- A 4 story
  building.
• All his life was fearful that hell be
  misunderstood. This is indeed what happened.
  Titchener (his student) who translated his
  writings to English was a religious
  structuralist and this is reflected in the
  tranlation.
• Life Born to a priest, was fairly weak student
  (daydreaming), went to medical school, decided
  that he wanted to work in research. Worked with
  Helmholtz.
• Unbelievably fertile 60,000 pp. of scientific
  writing.
• 1867 The Principles of Physiological
  Psychology
• The meaning of Physiological (i.e.,
  experimental)
• Very well organized. Fits the stereotype of the
  German Professor.
• Involved in Politics and social affairs. Not a
  recluse.
• In 1879 in Leipzig the first laboratory. Took
  much time to convince the community that until
  then saw Psychology as part of philosophy.
• The incident with Zolner (wrote an article
  against Henry Slade) did not help much.
• In the early 1900s published 10 volumes on
  Volkpsychologie (language, culture, myths)
• Called for 2 psychologies The experimental would
  address simple processes the more complex
  processes would be studied non-experimentally.
• Checking the citations to his work (in the
  1990s) Only 5 address Volkpsychologie