THEORY AND REASONING

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THEORY AND REASONING

• Yolanda C. Lang, CRNP, Dr.Ph

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CHAPTER ONE

• Questions
• How to make a decision
• Critical
• Thinking
• Sponge
• Panning for gold
• Which is best

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• Intelligent Guess Critical thinking
• Opinion
• Emotions
• Question presentation not presenter
• Critical thinkers are always open to change
• Critical thinkers able to defend their position

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• Critical thinkers question all beliefs own and
  others
• Critical thinkers need curiosity and courage

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RIGHT QUESTIONS

• What is the main issue
• What are the reasons
• Which phrases are ambiguous
• What are the value conflicts
• What are the deceptive assumptions
• Are fallacies in reasoning

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• How good is the evidence
• Are there rival causes
• Are the statistics deceptive
• Any significant information omitted
• What reasonable conclusions are possible

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CHAPTER TWO

• Issue stimulus for discussion
• Types of issues
• Deceptive
• Prescriptive

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Conclusion

• Message that the presenter wishes to accept
• Main point
• Usually inferred
• Must have support
• Outcome
• Thesis
• Central message

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Finding the conclusion

• Check issue
• Title
• Opening paragraph
• Skim
• Indicator works
• Beginning/end paragraph
• Find a conclusion not an example
• Check authors background

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Reasons

• Why hold opinion
• Beliefs
• Evidence
• Metaphors
• Why accept another viewpoint
• Why accept conclusions

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Argument

• Have an intent
• Convince us to believe
• Call for reaction/action
• Quality of arguments
• Two components conclusion and reason
• Failure to identify components

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Conclusion

• Does it make sense
• If so WHY
• Indicator words

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Reasons

• Kinds
• Statement of evidence
• Facts
• Weak reason weak reasoning
• Check own beliefs
• Avoid backward reasoning

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Chapter four

• Know meaning of words
• Know meaning of reasons/conclusions
• Do NOT presume same words different meanings
• Locate key words/phrases
• Identify key terms
• Look for abstract words

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• What does presenter mean
• What do you mean
• Rarely defined
• Dictionary usage
• Advertisements
• Emotional impact

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Reader Responsibility

• Stop clarifying at some point
• Strive for
• Clarity
• Specific criteria
• Concrete illustrations
• Know audience

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Components of reasoning

• Key terms/phrases
• Which key terms are adequately defined
• Which have different definitions which can change
  meanings
• Which are ambiguous within the context of the
  argument

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Chapter five

• Hidden information might be more important to
  argument
• Reason might be true but not supportive of
  conclusion
• Certain ideas are taken for granted

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Value Assumptions

• Influence prescriptive arguments
• What world should be
• Social issues
• Important to person or not
• Same value does not carry same weight in every
  situation
• Check background of presenter and audience

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• Magnitude of consequence effect value preference
• Controversial issue value
• Conflict between welfare of individual and
  society value
• Find own value assumptions

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Descriptive Assumptions

• Why world IS
• Logically connected
• What IS
• Taken for granted connection
• STRONG basis to accept granted assumptions

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Evaluation

• Connect
• Logical
• Supported in world
• Conclusion incorrect considering reasons
• Do you know enough about subject to make
  conclusions about his/her reasoning

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Fallacies in reasoning

• Strenths/weakness of reasoning
• Acceptability of conclusion
• Tricks

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Common Fallacies

• Shifting words
• Hasty generalization
• Attacking person not reason
• Name calling
• Emotional appeals
• Ad population arguments

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• Creation of false dilemma
• Glittering generalization
• Pet slogans
• Red herring
• Assuming perfect solution
• Changing words

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Evidence

• How good is evidence
• Is evidence fact or not
• Is evidence an opinion

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Judgment

• Judgment questions
• What is the proof
• Where is the evidence
• Are you sure it is true
• How do you know it is true
• Why do you believe it
• Can you prove it

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Facts/evidence

• Facts
• Descriptive conclusions
• Reasons
• Descriptive assumptions

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Dependable fact

• Common knowledge
• Claim as a conclusion
• Solid evidence

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Evidence

• Intuition
• Personal observations
• Examples
• Statistics
• Analogies
• Authorities.

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Authority - expert

• Disagree
• Wrong
• Why
• Direct source
• Secondary source
• Bias of presenter
• Reputation of presenter
• Guarantees

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Personal testimonials
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Evidence

• Personal observation
• Case studies
• Very dramatic

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Research Studies

• Verify
• Stats
• Multiple observers
• Laboratory controlled
• Contradiction
• Conclusion change over time
• How controlled is research

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• Generalization
• Sample
• Over
• Surveys
• Honest
• Wording
• Length
• Collection

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Analogies

• Not really evidence
• Check comparisons
• How similar
• How different
• Relevance of above

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Rival Cause

• Different interpretation
• Most plausible
• Favorite cause
• Combination of causes
• Redo research

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Decrease rival causes

• No financial reward
• Has control group
• Extraneous factors controlled
• Use random assignment
• Participants do not know outcome

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Post Hoc Fallacy

• If B occurs A must of caused it
• Check bias
• Check influence
• Check consistency with facts

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Statistics

• Numbers
• Check alarming numbers
• Average
• Range
• Distribution
• Consistency
• How obtained
• Draw own conclusion

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Omitted information

• Limited space/time
• Limited knowledge
• Attempt to deceive
• Presenter values

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Omitted clues

• Check opposite
• Check reference
• How facts obtained
• Any need data omitted
• Testimonials
• How presenter benefited

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Conclusion
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Assumptions

• Hidden/understated
• Taken for granted
• Influential in determining the conclusion
• Necessary if reasoning is to make sense
• Potentially deceptive

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Chapter One

• Theory Knowledge reasoning

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Chapter two

• Combining Words
• Relationships between words
• Theory
• Knowledge
• Discipline
• Phenomena

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• Ideas
• Concepts
• Propositions
• Hypothesis
• Assumptions
• research

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• Facts
• Principles
• Law
• Models
• Established theory
• Speculative theory

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Function of knowledge

• Provision of typology
• Structural framework
• Internal consistency
• Logical progression

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• Provision of Application process
• Usual order
• Identify
• Relate
• Understand
• Explain
• Predict
• influence

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Answer Questions

• Identify concepts and existence of relationships
  to solve problems
• Determine relevant concepts
• Understand grasp significance

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• Significance
• Explain
• Predict
• Influence
• Control
• Stimulate new theory

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Nursing Theory Development

• Different words
• No connection to existing
• Theory is future
• Check language clear
• Must make flexible

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Nursing research philosophies

• Modernism
• Object
• Deductive
• Post modernism
• Human nature
• Stories
• experiences

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Research types

• Quantitative
• Use numerical
• No researcher influence
• Decrease bias
• Use of statistics
• Descriptive
• Correlation
• experimental

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Qualitative

• Systematic
• Life experience
• Inductive reasoning
• Researchers interpretation
• Grounded
• Historical
• philosophical

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Reasoning

• Cognitive
• Intellectual
• Critical thinking

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Reasoning

• Deductive
• Accept as true
• Large to small
• Inductive
• Begin with observation
• Lead to development of larger concepts
• Abductive
• Conceptual leap

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Influence reasoning

• Operational definitions
• Variables
• assumptions

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Reasoning in Nursing

• Knowledge
• Skills
• Values
• Meanings
• Experience
• caring

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Theories

• Grand system (GST)
• Whole greater than parts
• Has subsystems
• Organized toward a goal

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Open system (OST)

• Interactions between systems
• Interactions between environment
• Exchange of energy, influence, information and
  matter

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Basic concepts

• Wholeness
• Hierarchy
• Teleology
• Interaction
• Entropy
• Environment
• Interdisciplinary influence
• Significance of reasoning

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General/open systems theories

• Stress adaptations
• Generalized response to stress
• Physiological/psychological
• Pleasure/bad

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Maslow

• Physiology
• Safety/security need
• Love/belonging
• Esteem
• Self-actualization

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Erickson

• Personality development
• 8 stages of life cycles
• Developmental tasks

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Communication

• Source
• Encoder-sender
• Message
• Channel or method of sending
• receiver

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Communication models

• Shannon-Weaver
• Added concept of noise
• Leary Model
• Dominate/submissive
• Love/hate
• Berlo
• Source message- channel - receiver

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Health communication model

• Relationships
• Transactions
• contexts

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Change theory

• Planned
• Haphazard
• Calm
• Chaotic

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Change theory

• Planned
• Empirical-rational
• Normative-reeducative
• Power-coercive
• Lewins Force Field
• Unfreezing
• Moving
• refreezing

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Nursing Theory Influences

• Regulation of education/practice
• Federal funds
• Browns Nursing for the future
• Scholarly journals

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Nursing theory 1850 - 1960

• Nightingale
• Henderson
• Peplau
• Johnson

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Nursing Theory 1960s

• Scholarly advances
• Schlotfeldt
• Ellis
• Theory development
• Orlando
• Lewis

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1970s

• Scholarly advances
• Doctoral programs
• Conceptual frameworks
• Rogers
• Roy
• Orem
• King
• Neumann/Newman

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1980s

• Scholarly advances
• Doctoral programs
• Scholarly journals
• Theory
• Parse
• Leninger
• Watson
• Benner and Wrubel

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Criterion based critique model

• Model
• Three phrases
• Eight concepts
• Three sections

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Concepts

• Meaning of theory
• Boundaries
• Language
• Major concepts
• Propositions
• Theoretical knowledge
• Theory influence practice

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• Phrase one intent
• Criterion one
• Meaning
• Intent of theory
• Application
• Primary/secondary source
• Title
• Judgment

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2 Boundaries

• Interpretation
• Setting to use in
• Setting developed in
• Recipients of care groups
• Age related
• Aggregates
• Health/wellness continuum
• Acuity of care

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Role of nurse

• Caregiver
• Care manager
• Educator
• Leader
• Advocate
• Scientist
• artist

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3 language

• Interpretation
• Clear
• Consistent helpful to nursing
• Application
• Ability to understand
• Judgment
• Allow for expansion

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4 Major Concepts

• Interpretation
• Accepted Concepts
• Unique to discipline
• Definition
• Concepts clearly presented
• Terms are vague

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4 cont

• Application
• Primary/secondary source
• Do they agree
• Select at least two to define

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5 propositions

• Interpretation
• Exciting
• Stimulated growth and questions
• Judgment
• Will it stimulate further growth and questions

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6 Related to Nursing

• Interpretation
• Propositions identify relationships and
  direction
• Derived from observations
• Two types
• Cause/effect
• Coexist
• Application

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7 Explain/Predict phenomena

• Interpretation
• Connection between theory and practice
• Evidence
• Replicate
• Judgment
• Own example

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8 Influence nursing practice

• Interpretation
• Use of critical thinking
• WILL impact nursing
• Changes in patient care
• Application
• Your practice
• Why do you do what you do

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Advanced theory analysis models

• Barnum
• Internal criticism
• External criticism
• Strengths/limitations
• Evaluations
• Fawcett
• Analysis
• evaluation

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• Lorraine Walker and Kay Avant
• Systematic examination
• Meaning
• Logic
• Usefulness
• Generality
• Simplicity
• testability

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Afaf Melesi

• Comprehensive
• Analytic
• evaluation

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Skills needed

• Observation
• Purposeful
• Intuition
• Questioning
• Compare/contrast

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1990s

• Scholarly advances
• Research center
• Research priorities
• Theories
• Nothing new

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