Behavioralism

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Behavioralism
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Behavioralism-Different Approaches.

• Works based on the collection of empirical data
  from mass public opinion surveys. The American
  Voter (1964), The Civic Culture (1963).
• Works based on economic reasoning that provide
  models to understand empirical political data. An
  Economic Theory of Democracy (1957).
• Works inspired on sociological approaches
• On aggregate data and class-based analysis.
  Political Man (1963)
• On grassroots micro-sociological analysis. Who
  Governs? (1961)
• On System Theory (Easton)

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2. Works based on economic reasoning.

• Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy
  (1957).
• Method economic approach, which assumed
  individuals are rational
• Rational behavior was understood as directed by
  goals, based on self-interest, and, in Downs
  analysis, related to government selection.
• Foundation of the RATIONAL CHOICE approach (today
  hegemonic).

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An Economic Theory of Political Action in a
Democracy.

• Economic theory has not dealt satisfactorily with
  the concept of Government.
• Government was assumed to maximize social
  welfare, but ... what reason is there to believe
  that the men who run the government would be
  motivated to maximize it? (136)
• Individual interests do not necessarily coincide
  with social interests.
• Instead, governors are led to act by their own
  selfish motives. (136)

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A Democracy is a political system in which

1. All adults are allowed to vote.
2. Every adult gets one vote.
3. Existence of at least two political parties.
4. Periodical elections.
5. A single party/coalition is chosen in each
   election.
6. The party that gets the majority of votes wins.
7. Losers dont prevent winners from taking office.
8. Winners dont attempt to wipe out the losers.

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Axioms

• Political parties are teams whose leaders seek
  office to enjoy benefits.
• The party that wins controls the government.
• Governments economic powers are unlimited, but
  it cannot restrict the oppositions freedom.
• All agents are Rational

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Main Hypothesis

• Political parties in a democracy formulate
  policy strictly as a means of gaining votes.
• Parties social functionto carry out policies
  while in governmentis accomplished as a
  by-product of their private motivewhich is to
  attain the income, power, and prestige of being
  in office. (137)

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Other Hypotheses

• Voters vote for the candidate/s they think will
  give them more benefits.
• Government decisions are based on marginal
  expenditure, that is programs are expanded until
  the vote gain from each dollar spent equaled the
  loss of votes resulting from increased taxes.
• All parties must find out what the voters want
  and compete to do it better.
• Parties must frame their discourse loosely so as
  to attract as many voters as possible.

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Problem imperfect knowledge fosters...

• Persuasion (exposure to a biased selection of
  facts) Specialists/Gvt. Representatives.
• Ideologies (help voters to rapidly identify
  differences between parties). Parties then invent
  ideologies to attract voters
• Rational Ignorance (may lead to apathy, which is
  very rational considering the costs of
  information).

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Downs anticipates the problem of the free rider

• In a democracy policies benefit all citizens
  evenly. Thus, my own participation do not
  increase my gains, unless my vote is going to
  decide the election.
• So, apathy and withdrawal from political
  participation are rational.

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Different Party Systems...

• Depends on the statistical distribution of the
  electorate.
• If the curve is normal, it produces a two-party
  system, with parties quite alike
• If the electorate is polarized, there will be a
  two-party system with increasing differences
  between the partieseach party gains more votes
  the more differences it poses to the
  opposition... Ultimately this leads to CHAOS
  (continuous dramatic changes in policy)
• A multimodal distribution produces a multi-party
  system

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In analyses such as Downs, once the premises are
accepted, there is no way of avoiding the
conclusions.
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Typical Rational Choice Dilemmas (Hardin 1968)

• Cold War dilemma of steadily increasing
  military power and steadily decreasing national
  security. (1243)
• How can I win the game of tick-tack-toe? It is
  well known that I cannot if I assume that my
  opponent knows the game.
• Maximizing population does not maximize goods.
• The tragedy of the Commons in a pasture open
  to all, each herdsman will add as many animals as
  possible, until the grass disappears. So,
  individual freedom contradicts the common good.

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Along the tradition of the Civic Culture
Putnams examination of the American society.
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• Robert Putnams seminal work Making Democracy
  Work (1993), a study of civic culture in Italy.
• Main Problem What are the conditions for
  creating strong, responsive, effective
  representative institutions? (p.6)
• Main influences
• De Tocquevilles emphasis on associations
• Almond and Verbas concerns on political culture
  and methods (IMPRESSIVE fieldwork done for 30
  years).
• Neo-Institutionalisms

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Core Thesis

• What lies at the core of sucessful and enduring
  representative institutions is civic
  associations.
• Peoples engagement with civic associations (i.e.
  Choral societies) generates Social Capital
  (TRUST).
• Abundance and lack of social capital is what
  characterizes the Northern and Southern areas of
  Italy respectively.

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Putnam

• Networks of civic engagement, like the
  neighborhood associations, choral societies,
  cooperatives, sports clubs, mass-based parties...
  Represent intense horizontal interaction and
  are an essential form of social capital. (173)

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In Bowling Alone,

• Putnam described the loss of social capital in
  the American society in the last three decades.
• Use of surveys ( Almond and Verba)
• Questions on trust and participation
• (i.e. How many people do you think you can trust
  in case you have a problem?)

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In Bowling Together,

• Putnam evaluates the effects of September 11 on
  American values and civic habits.
• Surveys (n500)
• Mid-October/mid-November 2001
• Comparison between 2001 and 2000
• Putnam finds CHANGE.

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Results

• Increasing trust in both Federal and local
  government, and in the police.
• Increase in peoples interest in politics and
  peoples will to get involved with the community.
• Americans trust each other more, too, even
  accross ethnic groups and classes.
• These trends are more significant among younger
  Americans (less than 35).

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Civic solidarity ? Social Capital

• Civic solidarity is what Albert Hirschman called
  a moral resourcedistinctive in that, unlike a
  material resource, it increases with use and
  diminishes with use.

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But...

• Trust in Arab Americans decreased 10.
• Increasing opposition to immigrant rights.
• Attitudes have shifted more than behavior...
  Will behavior follow attitudes?

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Conclusions

• In the aftermath of Septembers tragedy, a
  window of opportunity has opened for a sort of
  civic renewal that occurs only once or twice a
  century.
• Changes in attitudes and images are important,
  but alone do not create turning points in a
  nations history. That requires institutionalized
  change.
• Challenge

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Problems

• What about PERVERSE forms of social capital and
  trust, such as those we can see in organizations
  like the KKK, the SS, and mafia groups?
• Putnams view of political life is essentially
  a-political.

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Questions

• Arent these depoliticizing views of politics?
• Doesnt the political vanish?