LEADERSHIP

1

• LEADERSHIP
• Leadership theories fall into 3 categories
• trait theories look for the ideal person
• style / behavioural theories try to identify the
  ideal style of leaders behaviour
• contingency / situational theories argue that the
  ideal style and the best person to play the
  leadership role rely on the situation

2

• TRAIT THEORIES
• Argue that leaders are born not made
• Try to identify the characteristics / traits
  required of an individual in order to be an
  effective leader
• Some theories
• R.M. Stogdill (1948)
• 5 physical traits (eg energy, appearance, height)
• 16 personality traits (eg adaptability,
  enthusiasm)
• 4 intelligence and ability traits (eg above
  average IQ)
• 6 task related traits (eg persistence,
  initiative)
• 9 social traits (eg good interpersonal skills)

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• E.E. Ghiselli (1963)
• found significant correlations between leadership
  effectiveness and
• intelligence
• supervisory ability
• initiative
• self-assurance
• individuality
• K. Davis (1972) found effective leaders to have
  
• above average intelligence
• social maturity
• high achievement drive
• interest in people

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• The most researched traits
• Intelligence
• judgement, decisiveness, knowledge, speech
  fluency
• Abilities
• ability to enlist co-operation, co-operativeness,
  popularity and prestige, sociability, social
  participation, tact, diplomacy
• Personality
• adaptability, alertness, creativity, personal
  integrity, self-confidence, emotional balance and
  control, independence

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• CONCLUSIONS
• While undoubtedly having some merit, trait
  theories went out of fashion as
• each study seems to identify different traits
  (over 2000 identified in the literature)
• no indication is given as to how much of the
  trait is required
• not all effective leaders possess the required
  traits
• many non-leaders possess some or all of the
  traits
• many of the traits are really just patterns of
  behaviour expected from leaders (eg use of
  initiative) so - did these people become leaders
  because of the trait or was it developed
  subsequently?
• if the trait theories are correct, how come
  leadership training can be so effective?

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STYLE THEORIES

• Huneryager and Heckman (1967)
• dictatorial
• autocratic
• democratic
• laissez-faire
• Likert
• exploitive authoritative
• benevolent authoritative
• consultative authoritative
• participative group management

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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN STUDIES

• Commenced under the guidance of Likert
• Involved the analysis of a large number of
  effective and ineffective work groups
• The leadership style associated with each group
  was examined
• 2 styles identified
• employee centred - behaviours directed towards
  the social and emotional needs of group members
• production centred - behaviours directed towards
  task accomplishment
• Conclusion groups with employee centred leaders
  outperform others

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UNIVERSITY OF OHIO STUDIES

• Similar study identified -
• initiating structure leaders (task centred)
• consideration leaders (employee centred)
• Conclusion
• no one style of leadership can be said to be most
  effective - which is most effective depends on
  the situation

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CONTINGENCY THEORIES

• Origins - the behaviour and trait theories
• Propose - there is no universally best style
  also, leadership is not dependent on the
  characteristics of the leader
• IE leadership is situational the most effective
  person and appropriate style of behaviour will
  depends on -
• leaders personality
• relationships between the leader and the led
• the nature of the task
• work conditions
• leaders position power
• safety and control requirements
• skill, experience and qualifications of the
  leader and the led

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Fiedlers Theory

• Based on
• assessment of leadership style and
• assessment of the situation
• Leaders style assessed by the Least Preferred
  Co-worker technique
• Situation assessed in terms of - leader
  position power - task structure -
  leader-member relations

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• Very favourable situations everyone knows what
  to do relationships are good (employees are
  highly motivated) therefore - the leader does
  not have to engage in lengthy human relations
  exercises - a simple task focus is all that is
  required
• Very unfavourable situations little structure
  (ie task focus is needed) relations are poor
  (relationship focus will not work) therefore - a
  human relations approach will not work, and
  leader is left with no option but a task focus
• Intermediate everyone has a reasonable idea what
  to do and relationships are quite good by
  adopting a relationship approach the leader can
  bring about a significant increase in motivation,
  leading to improved performance

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• HERSEY AND BLANCHARDS SITUATIONAL THEORY
• A contingency theory which focuses on the
  followers as the central variable
• Identifies 4 classes of followers (4 maturity M
  levels)
• M1 typically new recruits lacking both
  confidence (motivation) and ability
• M2 by this stage, the subordinates still lack
  the required technical expertise but have now
  been socialised as part of the organisation
  motivated, but unable
• M3 have by now acquired all the necessary
  skills, but motivation has become an issue
• M4 followers who are both motivated and able

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• Adopting the same two dimensions of leader
  behaviour as other researchers, Hersey and
  Blanchard argue that leaders can move along both
  dimensions simultaneously, resulting in four
  styles
• TELLING characterised by a strong task emphasis
  and low relationship emphasis suitable for M1
  followers
• SELLING strong emphasis on both the task and the
  people suitable for M2
• PARTICIPATING low task emphasis and strong
  relationship emphasis suitable for M3
• DELEGATING little emphasis on either - the group
  is simply left to get on with the job suitable
  for M4