Sudan: In Search of a Nation

1
Sudan In Search of a Nation

• Roberta Ann Dunbar
• The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
• For Bridges and Barriers Workshop
• State Department of Public Instruction
• Raleigh, NC--July 12, 2006
• (the images have been removed and replaced by
  hyperlinks, with some revisions due to
  accessibility)

2
Overview

• Ancient Civilizations of the Nile Valley
• SudanPhysical and Human Resources
• Socio-Economic Indicators
• Nineteenth and 20th Centuries
• Themes of the Independence Era 1956-Present
• Civil Conflicts and the Search for Peace

3
The Ancient Nile Valley

• The Legacy of Human Diversity
• A New Kingdom Vision Four principal ethnic
  groups Egyptians, Assyrians, Nubians, and
  Libyans

4

• http//www.snaithprimary.eril.net/eg11.htm
• http//www.homestead.com/wysinger/tombofhuy.html

5
Nubian Queens

• Queen KemsitNubian Queen of Mentuhotep II,
  2061-1010 B. C.

6
Kush and the 25th Dynasty

• The Sphinx of Taharqa 690-664 B. C. from the
  Temple I at Kawa

http//www.livius.org/pha-phd/pharaoh/pharaoh.htm
10th image down
7
Queen Malakaye

• A Kushitic queen of the early 6th century.
• Women of the ruling class held high status in the
  Kush Kingdom.
• During the later phase of the empire in Meroe,
  some queens were joint rulers.

• http//www.mfa.org/collections/search_art.asp?recv
  iewtrueid142605

8
Sudan Political Map

• http//www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/s
  udan.pdf

9
Physical and Human Resources

• About ¼ size of United States
• Largest country territorially
• Savannah Grasslands to SouthSeasonal Rains
  April-November
• Desert to the north
• Confluence of Blue and White Nile

• http//magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0302/featu
  re2/
• Scroll down to map and click to enlarge. Option
  to download printable map

10
Major Socio-economic Indicators

• Population 41.2 million (July 2006 est.) growing
  at 2.55/year
• Life Expectancy 57.69 yrs for men 60.21 years
  for women
• Infant Mortality Rate 61.05/1,000 live births
• Total fertility rate 4.72 children born/woman

11
Cultural Features of Sudan

• Ethnic Groups Muslim Peoples.
• Arabs. 40 of population (1990). Divided between
  jaali (riverine, sedentary people) and juhayna
  (nomads).
• Nubians. Largely dispersed by the construction of
  Aswan dam.
• Beja. Cushitic speaking people now largely
  Arabized
• Fur. Agricultural people of the Jabal Marrah

12
Peoples of Northern Sudan

• http//www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/
  beja.htm
• Map and person

• http//home.planet.nl/ende0098/
• Tremendous variety of images warning one on
  the home page is inappropriate for students

Beja of the Sudan Coastal Region
Nuba Mountain People
13
Cultural Features of Sudan

• Muslim Peoples (cont).
• Zaghawa. Herding and gathering populations north
  of the Fur
• Masalit, Daju, and Berti. Cultivators speaking
  Nilo-Saharan languages
• West Africans. Largely Bornuan or Fulani in
  origin, constituted in 1990 6.5 of Sudanese
  population.

14
Cultural Features of Sudan

• Non-Muslim Peoples
• Nilotes. 3/5 of population of southern Sudan
  (1990).
• Dinka larges of the Nilotic groups.
• Nuer
• Shilluk
• Bari, Kuku, Kadwa, Mandari. South and East of
  other Nilotes, although Bari and Mandari closely
  related to them.

15
Two Principal Groups of Southern Sudan

• http//www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/nuer/slide
  s/full/027.jpg

Nuer

• http//www.usaid.gov/our_work/cross-cutting_progra
  ms/transition_initiatives/country/sudan/cattle.jpg
  

Dinka and Cattle
16
Cultural Features of Sudan

• Non-Muslim Peoples (cont).
• Murle, Didinga and others.
• Azande. Western al-Istiwal and Bahr al Ghaza and
  constituting 8 of population of southern Sudan
• Bviri and Ndogo. Southwestern Sudan speaking
  languages close to Azande.
• Nuba. Cultivators of Nuba Mountains of southern
  Kurdofan

17
Economy

• Gross Domestic Product/Capita (in PPP) 2,100
  (2005 est.)
• GDP Growth Rate 7 (2005 est.)
• Composition of GDP
• Agriculture 38.7 (80 of workforce)
• Industry 20.3 (7 of workforce)
• Services 41 (13 of workforce)
• Unemployment Rate. 18.7 (2002)

18
Economy

• Exports
• Oil and petroleum products
• Cotton
• Sesame
• Livestock
• Groundnuts
• Gum Arabic and Sugar
• Export Partners China (66.9), Japan (10.7)
  Saudi Arabia (4.4) (2004)

19
Economy

• Imports
• Foodstuffs
• Manufactured goods
• Refinery and Transport equipment
• Import Partners China (13) Saudi Arabia
  (11.5), UAE (5.9) Egypt (5.1) India (4.8)
  Germany (4.5) Australia (4.1) Japan (4)
  (2004)

20
Petroleum

• Insert map of oil fields and pipeline to the Red
  Sea
• http//www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/sudan_oil_us
  aid_2001.pdf

• http//www.sudan.net/graphic/news/people/bashier_o
  il_garang_soldier.jpg

21
Petroleum

• Chevron discovered oil in southern Sudan in 1978.
• First exported in 1999
• Proven Reserves 1.6 billion bbl
• Oil production 401,300 bbl/day (2005)
• Oil Exports 275,000 bbl/day (2004)
• Natural Gas Proved Reserves 84.95 billion cu m
  (2005) but none is being produced.

22
Petroleum

• In 2005, Sudan had become the 7th largest oil
  producer in Africa after Nigeria, Libya, Algeria,
  Angola, Egypt, and Equatorial Guinea
• In June 2006, Nigeria, the only African country
  in OPEC and holder of groups presidency invited
  Angola and Sudan to join OPEC.
• OPEC currently accounts for 42 of global oil
  production.

23
Political History 19th 20th Centuries

• Era of the Turkiyya under Muhammad Ali
• Modernization of the Egyptian state
• Institutionalization of slave raiding that
  penetrated areas of Middle and Upper Nile
• At first a state monopoly, then licenses to
  commercial merchants who wreaked havoc on areas
  to the south

• http//www.dignubia.org/maps/timeline/img/c1820-sl
  avers.jpg

Egyptian Slavers ca 1820 (link is slavers of the
19th century)
24
History of Sudan

• 1884-1898The Mahdiya Islamist State
• The Mahdi succeeded by Khalifa Abdullahi Ibn
  Muhammad.
• With help of Baggara, attempted expansion into
  Ethiopia

25
The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

• Lord Herbert Kitchener conquers Khartoum and
  defeats the Mahdist State in 1898

• Image of Lord Herbert http//www.country-data.com/
  frd/cs/sudan/sd01_05a.jpg

Courtesy of Robert O. Collins
26
Britains Southern Policy

• Close off the South to northern merchants,
  bureaucrats, and Muslim clerics
• Rely on Christian missions for education and
  civil services
• Focus on development of cotton as cash crop
  through the al-Gezira scheme

27
Key Political Figures of Northern Sudan 1956-2005

• General Ibrahim Abboud
• Hassan al Turabi
• Jaffar Nimeiri
• Sadiq al-Mahdi
• Muhammad al-Mirghani
• Ali Osman Taha
• Omar al-Bashir
• lt see Sudan Readings and Bibliography for images
  of each of thesegt

28
The South After Independence

• Agreements made at time of independence led many
  southerners to fear northern domination both
  politically and culturally
• Arabic official language
• Bureaucratic positions open to northerners
• Consolidation of military under northern
  commandled to first signs of rebellion

• Image of Sudans flag
• http//images.google.com/imgres?imgurlhttp//unim
  aps.com/flags-africa/sudan-flag.gifimgrefurlhttp
  //unimaps.com/flags-africa/sudan-print2.htmlh59
  9w900sz10hlenstart9tbnid4NhCIjaH0t9FoM
  tbnh96tbnw145prev/images3Fq3DSudan2BFlag2
  6svnum3D1026hl3Den26lr3D

29
Era of First Civil War

• 1955-1972 of northern hegemony following the
  opening up of the south
• 1963. Emergence of Anya Nya as force to be
  contended with because of military support from
  outside.
• Despite considerable military assistance to
  Government of Sudan, no victory over south seemed
  possible
• Continued instability in north because of failure
  to resolve this crisis
• Nimeiris government reached peace accord with
  Anya Nya in 1972

30
Second War in the South

• 1983-1994
• Declaration of SPLM/A as movement to achieve
  autonomy for southern Sudan
• 1994 Cukudum Conference. First attempts to
  establish formal judicial system to work with
  local elders
• Established National Congress, National
  Leadership Council, and National Executive Council

31
Second War in the South

• SPLM/A persisted as weak governance structure in
  south subject to outbreaks of ethnic
  rivalriesespecially between the Dinka who
  dominate SPLM/A
• John Garang remained dominant in both military
  and civil affairs
• 1997 attempt to draft constitution for Southern
  Sudan unable to bridge gap between accountability
  and Garangs power.

32
Issues in Southern Politics

• Lack of a sound ideology of governance within the
  SPLM/A reinforced militaristic nature of Garangs
  rule
• Ethiopian support ended in 1991
• Split between Nuer under Riek Machar of Sudan
  Peoples Defence Forces (SPDF) and SPLM/A
• January 2002reintegration of SPDF with SPLM/A

• Image of John Garang http//www.un.org/av/radio/un
  andafrica/images/john20garang20sm.jpg

John Garang

• Image of Riek Machar http//www.sudantribune.com/I
  MG/jpg/Riek_Machar_3-2.jpg

Riek Machar
33
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA)January 9,
2005

• Beginning in 1994, Intergovernmental Authority on
  Development (IGAD) sponsored peace negotiations.
• Formal peace process began in 2002 with
  additional support of the United States, the
  United Kingdom and Norway.

34
Comprehensive Peace AgreementJanuary 9, 2005

• Government of National Unity (GNU) to be formed
  for interim period of 6 years. At end of that
  time a referendum in the South will decide
  whether or not to secede.
• During interim, the Government of Southern Sudan
  (GoSS) will be autonomous.
• President of GsSS is to be the Vice-President of
  GNU.
• Integrated military of 39,000
• Oil wealth to be divided 5050 between north and
  south
• Jobs to be split in favor of GoS in national
  administration and in the transitional areas.
• Sharia law to be applied only in northern Sudan.

35
SPLM Challenges

• Untimely Death of John Garang in July 2005.
• Succeeded by Salva Kiir, former military
  commander without diplomatic skills and contacts
  of Garang
• SPLM must develop a program to implement peace,
  and to expand political alliances

• Image of John Garang

36
The Tragedy of Darfur

• Ancient History of close and amicable relations
  between Arab nomads and African cultivators
• Famous Sultanate of Fur a preeminent power in
  central Sudan in 19th Century
• Hakura system of feudal land grants given to
  followers who then had access to collection of
  dues from population.

• Map of Dafur within Sudan destroyed villages
• http//www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/darfur_villa
  ges_0802_2004.jpg

37
Darfur

• The region incorporated into the Mahdist state
  and then into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan where it
  remained a backwater

• Image of Jebel . http//www.sudansite.com/images/
  West_pics/Jebel_Mara_volcano_large.jpg

Photo of Jebel Marra, a volcanic massif in Darfur
38
Darfur

• Today region has population of ca 6 million
• Population before the war was relatively poor
• Historically, both nomads and cultivators would
  migrate

http//www.sudansite.com/images/West_pics/jebel_ma
rra3_large.jpg
The Jebel Marraat 8,000 ft, an important area of
rich land of fields, orchards and pastures
39
Darfur

• Darfurians are predominantly Muslim
• Many, like Ali al Haj Mohameda Bornuan, ran as
  an Islamist for governship of Darfur but was
  defeated.
• In 1994, when he was Minister of Federal Affairs,
  he divided up Darfur into the three states of
  today in hope that Islamists candidates might
  succeed.

• Map of Darfur
• http//rightsmaps.com/html/sudmap1.html

40
Darfur

• Ecological pressures first in 1960s, then in
  1980spopulation pressures and drought meant that
  cultivators closed off some of the nomads
  migration routes in order to protect their
  fields.
• Many Arabs lost herds and migrated out of the
  country for workmany to Libya

41
Darfur

• By late 1980s, a group that came to be called the
  Arab Gathering formed close ties with Muammar
  Gaddafi of Libya and began a critique of the
  central government for its neglect.
• Their ideology exhibited a racist preference for
  pure Arabs, the Juhayna, in opposition to the
  riverine groups that controlled the government

42
Darfur-1990s

• Following coup of Gen Omar Bashir in 1989, the
  government sought to strengthen ties to the Arab
  World and in Darfurto expand the position of
  Arabs by a proliferation of administrative titles
  that were given to Arabs and not non-Arabs.
• Many non-Arab groups like Masalit were disarmed
  and youth sent to fight against the south.

43
Darfur Arabs in 1990s

• Musa Hilal emerges as important leader of the
  Abbala Arabs in the north from his base in
  Misteriha
• By 2000, both helicopters and weapons were
  amassed there.

• Image of Musa Hilal http//hrw.org/images/050205mu
  sa.jpg

44
DarfurOrigins of Sudan Liberation Army

• 1996. Setting up of a secret organization in
  Khartoum by men who were to be important to SLA
• Abdel Wahid Mohamed al Nur, the first chairman of
  SLA
• Ahmad Abdel Shafi, SLAs first coordinator
• Abdu Abdalla Ismail, SLAs first representative
  to the Ceasefire Commission set up under the
  African Union

45
Origins of SLA

• Began to raise money and armsexplicitly in
  response to the threats made in Arab Gathering
  statements about killing all Blacks
• 1997. Had their first meeting with self-defense
  groups among the Fur in Darfur and began the
  mobilization of the area around Jebel Marra
• http//www.iansa.org/images/front-page/sla-troops-
  darfur.jpg possible image of troops

46
Early Days of SLA

• 1997-2002 Worked to expand ties with Zaghawa and
  with Masalit groups all coming under pressure and
  direct attacks from Arabs.
• August 2002. Leadership conference to elect
  officers military commanders
• January-March 2003. First meetings between SLA
  and SPLA
• By 2005, SLA had 11,000 troops among Fur, Zaghawa
  and Masalit
• http//www.sudan.net/graphic/news/conflict/darfur/
  SLA_Rebels.jpg troops image

47
Darfur and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM)

• 1993-1997. Formation of secret cells to discuss
  reform of the National Islamic Front
• Decision taken to educate ordinary
  Sudaneseorganized to conduct research

• Image of dr. Khalil Ibrahim http//www.sudantribun
  e.com/IMG/jpg/Khalil_Ibrahim_dr1.jpg

Dr. Khalil Ibrahimmember of founding group
48
Recollections of conditions that motivated their
actions
From an interview with Abubaker Hamid Nur There
was too much suffering. I travelled 60
kilometres to go to primary school, in Kornoi,
when I was 7 350 kilometres to go to
intermediate school, in Geneina 400 kilometres
to go to secondary school in Fasher and 1,000
kilometres to go to university, in Khartoum. It
was forbidden to speak the Zaghawa language in
school. In primary school, the teacher gave us a
blue ticket to pass to any boy who spoke Zaghawa.
At the end of the day, anyone who had had the
ticket was whipped. The whole of Kutum province,
with a population of more than 551,000 had one
general doctor and no specialists. Women walked
more than eight hours daily to get less than 60
litres of water. We were excluded from all key
posts and had no way of communicating with the
international community to ask for help. Why
Because a gang in Khartoum was controlling
everything. (Flint and De Waal, Darfur. 2005,
92-93.
49
JEM Philosophy

• Believed that the problems of Darfur require
  national solutions
• 2003 a 5-Point Manifesto
• Unified Sudan
• Justice and equality
• Constitutional reform guaranteeing rights to the
  regions
• Basic services for Sudanese
• Equitable development of economy and human
  services throughout the country.

50
The War in Darfur 2003-2005

• SLA and JEM cooperate militarily and meet with
  great success in 2003
• By mid-year, Musa Hilal had returned to Darfur
  and expanded recruitment for Janjawiid
• 2004. Throughout the year the Janjawiid, who had
  become a well-heeled paramilitary group led
  assaults on villages throughout the region at
  same time that negotiations were on-going with
  the United Nations and the African Union

51
The War in Darfur--2005

• By 2005nearly 2 million driven into camps inside
  Darfur
• 200,000 had fled to Chad
• Janjawiid operated with full support of Sudan
  Defence Forces, the Air Force, and the State
  Security.
• The Arab Gathering could operate independently of
  Khartoum
• http//www.ushmm.org/conscience/alert/darfur/steid
  le/ Series of images and account by an American
  observer

52
International Agents

• The African Union
• April 2004. First discussion of situation in
  Darfur at meeting of AUs Peace and Security
  Council meeting
• Humanitarian ceasefire agreement signed in
  NDjamena calling on Sudan government to
  neutralise the armed militias
• http//eur.news1.yimg.com/eur.yimg.com/xp/reuters_
  molt/2278372575.jpg image of African Union
  Soldiers/observers

53
International Agents

• The United States
• June 2004. U. S. Congress passed resolution
  describing Darfur as genocide
• September 2004. U. S. Secretary of State Colin
  Powell testified before the Senate Foreign
  Relations Committee that genocide had occurred in
  Sudan.
• http//www.sudantribune.com/article.php3?id_articl
  e11585 image Of US Secy of State Colin Powell
  testifying about genocide in Darfur

54
International Agents

• United Nations.
• June 2004. UN Security Council Resolution 1556
• Disarm Janjawiid
• Arrest leaders
• Allow access to humanitarian assistance
• September 2004. UN Security Council Resolution
  1564
• Mandate of International Commission of Inquiry on
  Darfur (ICID) to investigate human rights and to
  determine if genocide had occurred.
• January 2005-Report of ICID

55
Agreements for Peace in Darfur

• 2005, July. Government of Sudan, SLA/M and JEM
  sign Declaration of Principles in Abuja
• 2006, May 5. Signing of Darfur Peace Agreement in
  Abuja by Government of Sudan (largely represented
  by the National Congress Party) and a faction of
  the Sudan Liberation Army under Minni Arkou
  Minawi (SLA/MM

• Image of Minnie Arkou Minawi http//www.sudantribu
  ne.com/IMG/jpg/Minni_Arcua_Minnawi_speaks_.jpg

Minni Arkou Minawi
56
The Darfur Peace Agreement

• Political cartoon of man labeled Sudan watering a
  desert flower http//www.aljazeerah.info/Cartoons/
  200320cartoons/cartoon20negatives/2003/December/
  ar10.jpg by Al-Jazeerah

• Three Protocols
• Security Arrangements
• Power Sharing
• Wealth Sharing
• Darfur-Darfur Dialogue and Consultation

57
Sources

• Africa, Justice. Sudan Prospects for Peace In
  Review of African Political Economy 97, 30
  (September 2003), 489-497.
• Compare InfoBase Pvt Ltd. Sudan Political Map.
  http//mapsofworld.com/sudan/sudan-political-map.h
  tml
• Flint, Julie and Alex De Waal. Darfur. 2005.
• International Crisis Group. Sudans
  Comprehensive Peace Agreement The Long Road
  Ahead Africa Report No 106, 31 March 2006. Seen
  at http//www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id41
  79l1 (June 29, 2006).
• International Crisis Group. Darfurs Fragile
  Peace Agreement. Africa Policy Briefing No. 39.
  Nairobi/Brussels June 20, 2006 acceessed via
  http//www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id4179
  l1 (June 29, 2006)
• Library of Congress Country Study on Sudan.
  http//countrystudies.us
• Mohammed, Adan Azain. Women and Conflict in
  Darfur In Review of African Political Economy
  97, 30 (September 2003), 479-481.
• Rone, Jemera. Sudan Oil and War In Review of
  African Political Economy 97, 30 (September
  2003), 504-510.
• Salopek, Paul. Shattered Sudan. Drilling for
  Oil Hoping for Peace. National Geographic
  February 2003,30-67.
• Young, John. Sudan Liberation Movements,
  Regional Armies, Ethnic Militias and Peace In
  Review of African Political Economy 97, 30
  (September 2003), 423-434.