The Qiang, Xianbei and its Kingdoms

1
The Qiang, Xianbei and its Kingdoms

• Barfield, Thomas, The Perilous Frontier, Ch. 3,
  The collapse of Central Order, pp. 101-10
• OR
• Kleeman, Terry F. Great Perfection Da Cheng
  religion and ethnicity in a Chinese millennial
  kingdom (Honolulu) University of Hawaii Press,
  c1998, The Great Perfection, 1-106 pp 87-107 pp
  117-210.
• OR
• Holcombe, Charles, In the Shadow of the Han, Ch
  2, Refugee State A Brief Chronicle of the
  Eastern Chin, pp 25-33.

2
The Qiang, Xianbei and its Kingdoms

• The Sixteen Kingdoms
• The Qiang
• The Ba
• The Cheng-Han Kingdom
• The Di
• The Former Qin Kingdom
• The Later Qin Kingdom
• The Later Liang Kingdom
• The Xianbei
• The Murong
• The Yan State
• The Former Yan
• The Later Yan
• Southern Yan
• Western Qin
• Southern Liang
• The Sixteen Kingdoms A comparison
• References
• Western Yan

3
The Sixteen Kingdoms
4
The Sixteen Kingdoms (2)
5
The Qiang

• The ancient Qiang lived in the area in
  northeastern Qinghai ?? and the neighboring
  border area of eastern Gansu ?? .
• Qinghai is located on the northeastern part of
  the Tibetan Plateau, the world's highest region.
• Gansu lies between Qinghai and Inner Mongolia and
  borders Mongolia to the north. The Yellow River
  passes the southern part of the province.
• The area the Qiang lived in left very few, if
  any, archaeological remains.

6
The Qiang (2)

• In ancient China, Qiang ? was used as a generic
  term for the non-Han peoples in the northwest
  (the Han are the majority Chinese people).
• These peoples were frequently at war with the
  ancestors of ethnic Hans.
• The graph ? is made up of two elements ? (man)
  and ? (sheep), suggesting a sheep-herding people.
  
• They were also referred to as
• The Qiang of Many Horses.
• The war captives and as
• Victims used for human sacrifice.
• The name Qiang first appeared on the oracle bone
  inscriptions as the western enemies of the Shang
  ? Dynasty (ca. 1400-1100BCE) and according to the
  (Book of Poetry) Shijing ??, the founder of the
  Shang conquered the Qiang.
• Around 1100 BCE, the Zhou people and their
  western allies conquered the Shang and formed the
  Zhou dynasty.

7
The Qiang (3)

• In 771 BCE, the Qiang, with the help of other
  ethnic groups, killed the last emperor of the
  Zhou dynasty, and chased away his heir and
  family.
• During the Warrior Kingdom Period, the Qiang were
  referred to in the works of philosophers but not
  in the work of historians.
• During the Qin ? and Han ? (221BC-AD220) many
  groups of non-Han origin were referred to as the
  Qiang.
• Groups such as the Ba and the Di were considered
  part of the Qiang peoples.
• The Tanguts ??, who ruled part of China (Xi Xia
  ??) during the 1100s were also of Qiang origin.
• The Qiang are now one of the 55 officially
  recognized ethnic minorities in China with a
  population of about 85,000.
• Their descendants can be found among the Chinese,
  the Tibetans and many other minorities in
  southwestern China.

8
The Qiang Kingdoms Under the Qiang (Ba Di)
9
The Ba

• The Ba ? was probably made up of a number of
  subgroups and may have been related to the Qiang
  and Di.
• The eastern part of Sichuan was called the Ba and
  the word was also used to refer to the ethnic
  peoples living there.
• The Ba people occupied the Yangzi River area west
  of the gorges from at least 8th century BCE.
• The earliest mention of the Ba was in the
  Zhuozhuan ??, during the late Zhou Dynasty.
• Ba men were prized as mercenaries throughout
  their history they had been used by the state of
  Chu ? during the Spring and Autumn Period.
• Some of the Ba had developed at least two kinds
  of writings but other sub-groups were still
  primitive and hired out as mercenaries and lived
  on a hunting gathering economy supplemented by
  trading.

10
The Ba (2)

• The Ba were united by religious beliefs focused
  on tiger worship, by a common spoken language,
  and by cultural features such as songs and
  dances.
• After the Qin dynastys conquest of Ba, the
  leaders were treated as leaders of the
  non-Chinese peoples and were provided with wives
  .
• The Qin used them in its wars against other
  states but despised them and treated them as
  barbarians.
• After contact with the Chinese, the Ba,
  especially those living in the cities, began to
  identify with Chinese culture and eventually lost
  Ba identity.
• Liu Bang, founder of the Han dynasty used them in
  putting down rebellions.
• During the Later Han, Ba men were used against
  the Qiang invasions.
• During the Three Kingdoms Period (after the Han
  Dynasty) Zhuge Liang ??? of the State of Shu-Han
  ?? also trained 3,000 Ba to shoot crossbow and
  stationed them at strategic crossroads.
• By the 5th or 6th centuries, a large number of
  the Ba were familiar with Chinese culture while
  still identifying with their Ba identity and some
  religious features.
• Daoism was adopted by the Ba and it hastened
  their sinicization.
• Li Te ?? (d.303), founder of the Cheng ? state in
  the 4th Century came from a branch of the Ba
  (Bandun ??).

11
The Di

• The Di ?, a Qiang subgroup, settled in the
  Changan area around 3-5 century BCE.
• They were frequently mentioned in the early part
  of the Spring and Autumn Period (Zhou dynasty)
  when a state in Hebei had a ruling house of Di
  origin that was annexed by the Zhao ? in 295.
• The Di were not from the steppe and were probably
  not horse riders as they fought on foot against
  the Chinese who fought in horse drawn chariots.

12
The Di (2)

• Beginning early in the first century, a number of
  wars affected the area the Ba lived in and so a
  number of Di and Qiang were moved into Guanzhong
  ?? and Hedong ?? in Shanxi ?? (36).
• Fights between Qiang and Di peoples began in 107
  and lasted for 10 years and destroyed Guanzhong.
• At the beginning of the 2nd century, the area
  occupied by the Di and Qiang people had been
  affected by a decade of rebellions against the
  Late Han.
• Beginning in 119, there was a second round of
  rebellion which lasted into the later part of the
  century.
• The Di had served the Chinese as mercenaries and
  by the 4C they were becoming sinifized.
• They had Chinese names, spoke, read, and wrote
  Chinese, adopted Chinese governmental
  institutions and served in official positions.
• However, they were still considered by the local
  elite as non-Chinese.

13
The Cheng-Han Kingdom

• The earliest independent state during the Sixteen
  Kingdoms Period was Cheng-Han ?? which
  represented two states
• The Cheng state ?, proclaimed in 304 by Li Xiong
  ?? (r.303-334).
• The Han state ? in 338 by Li Shou ?? (r.338-343).
• When the Sima family united north China under the
  Jin dynasty (280) they executed Qiang chiefs for
  failing to defend the Jin against the Xiongnu
  attacks and the Qiang rebelled.
• The Qiang population moved to the far northwest
  of China but when warfare came, they led their
  families back east to the Chengdu Plain in
  Sichuan.
• The elites of Sichuan did not want them and so
  the Central government ordered the refugees to
  return to the Northwest but they did not go.
• In 301, the Government again ordered the Li
  family and their followers to return to the
  Northwest and their leader, Li Te ??, decided to
  declare independence but did not claim any
  imperial title.
• The Jin government sent troop to put down Lis
  rebellion but was unsuccessful and Li Te s son,
  Li Xiong ?? (274-334), who had succeeded to his
  fathers leadership declared himself King of
  Chengdu.

14
The Cheng-Han Kingdom (2)

• Later, he took the imperial title of emperor and
  established the earliest of the Sixteen Kingdoms
  and called it Da Cheng ??.
• He named his mother, Lady Luo, Empress Dowager
  and posthumously named his father, Li Te,
  emperor.
• Li Xiong was succeeded by his nephew and his
  uncle, Li Shou ??, became the regent.
• Because of the power struggles the regent feared
  that he would be assassinated and so deposed the
  emperor and changed the name of the state to Han.
• Cheng-Han was conquered by the Eastern Jin in
  347.
• By the end of the dynasty little was left of the
  extended Li family many had died in warfare --
  leading the charges in battle.
• Others were the victims of power struggles after
  the death of Li Xiong.

15
The Former Qin Kingdom

• Former Qin ?? was established by Fu Jiàn ??
  (r.351-355), of Di ancestry.
• Fu Jian (??) (r.357-385) unified North China in
  376.
• The father of the founder, Pu Hong ?? (285-350),
  had succeeded as tribal leader at the age of 12
  but did not participate in the Xiongnu conquest
  of north China under Liu Yuan.
• In 310, Pu Hong was offered a generalship by Liu
  Cong who had captured Luoyang in 311.
• Pu Hong did not accept it but instead chose to
  affiliate himself with the Eastern Jin and became
  the Governor of Qin Province.
• When Liu Yao of Han-Zhao (304-347) moved his
  capital to Changan, Pu Hong became his vassal
  and was recognized as King of the Di.
• Pu Hong kept away from the struggles between the
  Liu and Shi clans for control of North China.
• After Shi Le was victorious, Pu Hong surrendered
  to the Later Zhao (319-351) but when rebellions
  arose when Shi Hu ?? was usurping the throne, Pu
  Hong changed his allegiance to the Eastern Jin.
• When Shi Hu was victorious, Hong acknowledged his
  allegiance to the Later Zhao.

16
The Former Qin Kingdom (2)

• Shi Hu appeared to be appreciative of Pu Hongs
  service but was very suspicious of him and so
  secretly killed Pu Hongs two oldest sons who
  were hostages.
• When Shi Hu died, Ran Min, an adopted son of Shi
  Le usurped the throne.
• The non-Chinese of the Later Zhao, sensing danger
  with Ran Min in power, began to leave and join Pu
  Hong and ask Pu Hong for help against Ran Min.
• In 349, there were three unsuccessful attempts to
  assassinate Ran Min who became angry and ordered
  the massacre of non-Chinese up to 100 li (li
  1/2 kilometer) around Ye about 200,000 were
  killed.
• Seeing the weakening of the Later Zhao the
  Eastern Jin court wanted to win Pu Hong over to
  their side and so gave both him and his son
  appointments.
• Pu Hong accepted the titles but soon declared
  himself the Prince of Sanqin ?? (i.e., the prince
  of the Three Qins present day Shaanzi
  Province).
• He changed his name from Pu to Fu in 350 in
  response to a prophesy.
• After his death, his son, Fu Jiàn??, took over
  his troops and again claimed the Jin titles.

17
The Former Qin Kingdom (3)

• In 350, Fu Jiàn ?? and his younger brother led a
  group of 5,000 horse and foot soldiers, crossed
  the River on a pontoon bridge, and captured
  Changan in the name of Eastern Jin.
• In 351, Fu Jiàn ?? declared himself the Heavenly
  Prince ?? formally breaking from Jin (and Later
  Zhao) and establishing Former Qin ?? (351-394).
• The dynastic name of Qin was picked to recall the
  glory of the Qin dynasty and both Qin states had
  their capitals in Changan.
• As the ruler of Former Qin, Fu Jiàn appeared to
  be a diligent and thrifty ruler, and abolished
  many of the harsh Later Zhao laws and invited
  able people to join his administration.
• In 352, Fu Jiàn ?? claimed the title of emperor
  but continued to fight against former Later Zhao
  generals who controlled small fiefdoms.
• He was succeeded by Fu Sheng ?? (r.355-357), the
  third son of his empress, as his eldest son had
  been killed during a battle against the Eastern
  Jin.
• Fu Sheng was born blind in one eye and was known
  for his bad temper as well as for his strength
  and ferocity in battle.
• Soon after he succeeded to the throne all but one
  of his advisors appointed by his father were
  killed.

18
The Former Qin Kingdom (4)

• In 357, Fu Sheng became suspicious of his
  cousins, Fu Jian ?? (r.357-385) and Fu Fa ??, and
  considered killing them.
• His palace women leaked the news to Fu Jian, who
  immediately led his private army to attack the
  palace.
• The imperial guards, resented Fu Sheng and so
  surrendered without resisting.
• Fu Jian captured Fu Sheng, who was in a drunken
  stupor, and had him deposed and executed. Fu Jian
  then took the throne.
• On ascending the throne, Fu Jian ?? posthumously
  honored his father and gave his mother, Lady Gou
  ?, the title Illustrious Grand Empress and his
  wife, the Lady Gou, Illustrious Empress and named
  her son, Fu Hong ?, his heir.
• His mother had his brother, Fu Fa (not same
  mother), killed so that he would not be able to
  plot against him and Fu Jian was said to have
  been very upset and to have enfeoofed Fu Fas
  sons.
• During this time, Murong Chui ??? fled from of
  Former Yan and defected to the Former Qin and
  helped Fu Jian ?? to conquer Former Yan in 370.
• After six years of campaigns, Fu Jian ??
  succeeded in uniting all of Northern China in 376
  (by conquering Former Liang and Dai).
• Dai was outside of the Sixteen Kingdoms and its
  Xianbei rulers later changed the name of their
  state to Wei and went on to become the Northern
  Wei.

19
The Former Qin Kingdom (5)

• The Di did not have a strong tribal organization
  like the Xiongnu so Fu Jian was able to reduce
  the tribal leaders to a subordinate status and
  executed many imperial clan members.
• As emperor, Fu Jian ?? completely adopted Chinese
  culture employing Chinese as officials and as
  army commanders.
• The government was in the hands of Wang Meng ??
  (c.325-375), a Chinese prime minister, who wanted
  to reduce Di power and tribal influence in court.
• In 383, Fu Jian ?? tried to invade the Eastern
  Jin but was defeated and many of the formerly
  conquered states then rebelled against the him.
• Seeing Former Qin weakened, Murong Chui rebelled
  against it and many leading aristocrats were
  killed including consort families of Fu Jian ??
  and other imperial family members.
• In fall 385, Fu Jian ?? was captured by Yao Chang
  ?? (r.384-393), the leader of a rival Di clan
  whose life Fu Jian had spared in 357.
• Yao Chang tried to persuade Fu Jian ?? to pass
  the throne to him, but Fu Jian, angry at Yao's
  betrayal, refused and was strangled.

20
The Former Qin Kingdom (6)

• After the death of Fu Jian ??, the court was
  split into two parts
• One part was located in present day Taiyuan and
  was soon overwhelmed (386) by the Dingling and
  the Later Yan (founded by Murong Chui).
• The other part struggled in its reduced
  territories around the border of present day
  Shaanxi and Gansu 394 after years of invasions by
  the Western Qin (Xianbei) and the Later Qin.
• The Murongs were able to reassert their national
  identity in the Yan territory as the Later Yan
  this was maintained it until it was conquered by
  the Tuoba (Northern Wei) in 436.
• In the west, Guanzhong became the arena where the
  successors of Fu Jian ?? fought against Yao
  Chang.
• Yao Chang ?? occupied Changan.

21
The Later Qin Kingdom

• Yao Chang ?? (r.384-393), the founder of the
  Later Qin (384-417) was the son of a powerful
  general and Qiang chieftain under Shi Hu of the
  Later Zhao.
• After the collapse of the Later Zhao, Yao Chang's
  older brother tried to start an independent state
  but was defeated and killed by Former Qin forces.
• Yao Chang surrendered and Fu Jian ?? decided to
  let him live.
• Yao then became a general of the Former Qin but
  after Fu Jian ?? was defeated by the Eastern Jin,
  Yao Chang rebelled and established his own
  kingdom of the Later Qin ?? (384-417) in 384.
• After losing several battles against Fu Teng who
  claimed to be the successor of Fu Jian ??, Yao
  Chang became superstitious and thought that the
  spirit of Fu Jian ?? was helping Fu Teng.
• He made an image of Fu Jian ?? and worshipped it
  but this did not help Yao Chang, and he
  eventually cut off its head and sent it to Fu
  Teng.
• Yao Chang died in 394 and was succeeded by his
  son, Yao Xing ?? (366-416) who destroyed the last
  loyalists of the Former Qin and began to expand
  his control over western China.

22
The Later Qin Kingdom (2)

• Yao Xing temporarily seized all of Western Qins
  territory and forced several other states --
  Southern Liang, Northern Liang, Western Liang, to
  submit to him.
• Late in his reign, there were political struggles
  among his sons and nephews.
• Yao Xing was succeeded by his eldest son, Yao
  Hong who was faced with
• Challenges from two of his brothers who had to be
  killed.
• 3,000 Qiang families who had been relocated by
  Yao Xing wanted to return to their homeland and
  had to be defeated.
• An official tried to seize military control of
  his region and had to be suppressed.
• The Later Qin was attacked by the Eastern Jin.
• Western Qin and Da Xie also took the opportunity
  to attack.
• By the end of 416, Eastern Jin troops had
  conquered Luoyang and were advancing on the
  capital of Changan.
• The foreign rulers in the north sent forces to
  help the Later Qin but the Eastern Jin defeated
  the northern forces and ended the Later Qin.
• Later Qin was conquered by the Eastern Jin in
  417.

23
The Later Liang

• There were five Kingdoms named Liang
• The Former Liang ?? (320-376) Han
• The Later Liang ?? (386-403) Di
• The Northern Liang ?? (397-439) - Xiongnu
• Southern Liang (397-414) Xianbei
• The Western Liang ?? (400-421-421) Han
• The Later Liang ?? (386-403) was founded by Lü
  Guang ?? of Di ethnicity.
• It occupied Central Gansu.
• By the time of Lü Guangs death, the Later Liang
  had collapsed into three states Northern Liang
  (397-439), Southern Liang (397-414) and Western
  Liang (400-21).

24
The Later Liang (2)

• Lü Guang was a general of the Former Qin who
  tried to connect his family to the Empress Lü,
  who ruled as regent between 186-180BCE.
• After the collapse of the Former Qin, Lü Guang
  used his troops to establish a Later Liang state
  (386-403).
• Lü Guang was brilliant in military strategy but
  was not a good administrator -- placing
  untrustworthy persons in high positions and
  executing enemies.
• These actions reduced public confidence in him
  and some began to gather around the heir of the
  Former Liang (of Han ancestry) who was executed a
  year later.
• In two years, Lü Guang had to face two
  rebellions famine had also begun in the
  province.
• Looking for a scapegoat for the defeat, Lü Guang
  executed two of his generals of Xiongnu descent
  and the Xiongnu rebelled.
• In 387, he led a massive assault against the
  Western Qin (Xianbei) but was defeated.
• Border skirmishes between Later Liang and Western
  Qin (385-400, 409-412) was continued throughout
  391-396.
• In 397, Lü Guang was 60 years old and only had
  the palace under his control.

25
The Later Liang (3)

• Shortly before his death, Lü Guang took the title
  of Retired Emperor and named the son of his
  principal wife, Lü Shao ??, emperor.
• The son was told to occupy the throne and
  delegate all decisions his half-brothers, Lü Zuan
  ?? (r.400-1) and Lü Hong ?? as they were more
  competent.
• Lü Zuan (was the eldest son but not the son of
  the principal wife) and Lü Hong started a coup
  and Lü Shao committed suicide.
• Lü Zuan took the throne but Lü Hong later
  rebelled.
• Lü Zuan was killed a cousin who offered the
  throne to Lü Long (r.401-403), who became the
  last ruler of the Later Liang.
• As emperor, Lü Long began a series of large scale
  purges -- the court struggles and warfare at the
  frontiers led to a critical economical situation
  for the people and the elites of the Later
  Liang asked help from the Later Qin ruler, Yao
  Xing (r.394-416), who had already absorbed
  Western Qin and was eager to expand farther west.
• Yao Xing easily took over the other states of
  Liang -- Western (401-421), Northern (397-439),
  and Southern (397-414).
• In 403 the Later Qin swallowed up the remaining
  Liang territory.

26
The Xianbei

• The Xianbei originated in Manchuria which was
  geographically isolated and not caught up in the
  constant warfare between rival warlord states.
• They were able to develop in a region that was
  outside the main area of conflict where it was
  possible to combine Chinese and tribal peoples.
• The Xianbei ?? appeared in Chinese records for
  the first time about 45CE (Han Dynasty)
  relations with the Later Han was established in
  49CE.
• Five years later, two chieftains presented
  themselves at court and received gifts from the
  Han emperor establishing tributary relations.
• At that time, the Xianbei had a language, and an
  egalitarian political system with no hereditary
  succession or hierarchical clan structure.
• Under the Xiongnu, the Xianbei leadership was
  confined to the local chieftain level.
• The Xianbei had a weak confederacy.
• Authority was in the hands of small chiefs who
  only occasionally united under a charismatic
  leader.

27
The Xianbei (2)

• After the fall of the Han dynasty, the Xianbei
  formed a number of kingdoms -- the Yan (?),
  Western Qin (??), Southern Liang (??).
• By the time of the Western Jin (265-420), the
  Xianbei were the most active hostile group.
• They developed in the Manchurian borderland in
  the Liao River Basin and were no longer purely
  nomadic.
• They had carved territories out of the
  Manchurian frontier where they ruled farmers and
  established cities.
• In 440, the Xianbei eventually went on to unite
  all of China under the Northern Wei ?? (386-534)
  .
• The most important Xianbei group was the Tuoba
  (??) clan which eventually unified the north and
  founded the Northern Wei (??) dynasty.

28
The Xianbei (3)

• The Xianbei established the following kingdoms
  during the Sixteen Kingdoms Period
• The Former Yan ?? 337-370
• The Later Yan ?? 384-407
• The Southern Yan ?? 398-410
• Western Qin ?? (385-400 409-431)
• Southern Liang ?? (397-414)
• Another kingdom, the Western Yan (384-394), was
  not recognized by historians as one of the
  Sixteen Kingdoms as it lasted for only 10 years.

29
The Xianbei (4)
30
The Murong

• When the Xiongnu collapsed, border states ruled
  by the Murong of Xianbei origin survived by
  stressing defense and internal organization.
• They were allies of China as well as Chinas
  raiders.
• The Murong had not been able to assert control
  over the steppe from their isolated position in
  Liaodong.
• During the Three Kingdoms Period, the Murong was
  just one of many nomadic tribes in the northeast
  in 237, Wei Xuandi used the Murong against the
  warlords in Liaodong.
• The Murong received titles from the Wei (220-265)
  court?
• The policy of the Jin ? was the same as that of
  the Wei and Jin recognized the Murong leader,
  Murong Shegui , as Chief (Shanyu) of the Xianbei.
  
• Shegui felt powerful enough to desert his Chinese
  patrons a few months after receiving his title.
• Shegui was the first Murong leader to provide his
  sons with a Chinese education and adopt some
  Chinese customs.
• For three generations the Murong leaders had been
  receiving Chinese education.

31
The Murong (2)

• The next generation of Murong leaders beginning
  with Murong Hui ??? began to organize
  recognizable state structures.
• Murong Huis domain in northern China was under
  titular Jin rule, The Murong did not try to adopt
  the Chinese court structure completely.
• Murong Hui ??? had submitted to the Jin as a
  vassal in 289 and was given the title the Duke of
  Liaodong.
• Over the years, he experimented and developed a
  new organization that would not alienate their
  tribal followers but would have a centralized
  bureaucracy.
• He transformed the Murong from a tribal to a
  mixed state society.
• There was only one other powerful clan in the
  area, Duan, and the Murongs maintained stability
  by making sure that each ruler was related,
  through his mother, to the Duan people to ensure
  their loyalty.
• Murong Huang married a Duan
• Murong Chui married three Duan women two
  sisters and a niece and his son, born of his
  first wife (Duan), was named heir and he also
  married a Duan.
• Founder of Southern Yan had no son so he married
  his daughter to a Duan.
• His heir was Murong Chao, son of his elder
  brother and a Duan wife.
• The Murongs shared power with the Duan but
  reserved the dominant position for themselves.

32
The Murong (3)

• Murong Hui had three major innovations
• The adoption and encouragement of agriculture and
  craft production which enabled him to export
  grain to China.
• The use of Chinese administrators for the
  organization of this new economy.
• The use of Chinese advisors to organize the army
  which remained in Xianbei hands -- its units
  still retained a tribal organization but the
  ability for local tribal leaders to act on their
  own was reduced. In battle and in planning they
  were taking orders from a central command.
• In 302, the Murong was attacked twice by the
  Yuwen ?? tribe but defeated them soundly despite
  the attackers numerical superiority.
• Impressed by the successes, many Xianbei joined
  the Murong.
• Murong Huis half century of rule provided the
  stability and continuity for major changes to be
  implemented.
• Xianbei tribe whose descendants established the
  Northern Zhou dynasty (557-581).

33
The Murong (4)

• During Murong Hui's rule as tribal chief, the Jin
  Dynasty's central government was in constant
  turmoil and eventually collapsed due to
  infighting and rebellions.
• The Murong refused to be drawn into the fight so
  except for some local battles with the neighbors,
  Murong Hui had many years of peace to develop his
  kingdom.
• As the Xianbei kingdom was at peace and was able
  to offer food and safety, many refugees came from
  the south.
• Murong Hui treated the ethnic Han refugees with
  kindness so most chose to stay, greatly
  strengthening his power.
• The majority of the refugees were farmers but
  there were also artisans and former officials and
  Murong Hui tried to attract these refugees in
  order to increase the productivity.
• The Chinese officials became an important part of
  the Murong court advising Hui on strategy and
  government and helping to lay the foundation for
  a dynasty
• .

34
The Murong (5)

• The Chinese advisors convinced Murong Hui of the
  possibility of ruling China itself.
• Around 322, Murong Hui began attacking the
  neighboring Xianbei states and each conquered
  tribe was incorporated into the Murong state as a
  separate unit, increasing the size of the army.
• Border Chinese were also conquered and put to
  work.
• By the time of Huis death, he was head of an
  emerging dynasty and the population had increased
  10 times from the start of his reign.
• His successor, Murong Huang ???, transformed the
  Murong from a nomadic tribe to a Chinese state.
• It was not easy as the Murong had a long
  tradition of fraternal/lateral succession, a
  tradition that was in conflict with the Chinese
  tradition of primogeniture.
• A compromise was developed in which the ruler
  succeeded in Chinese fashion by appointed his
  brothers and uncles to key posts.
• The best generals and advisors were members of
  the imperial lineage who looked at the state as
  their common property.
• The chances of civil wars of succession occurring
  were lessened but not eliminated because Huang
  was jealous of his talented brothers and drove
  them into exile or rebellion.
• Murong Huang proclaimed himself King of Yan in
  337.

35
The Murong (6)

• Murong Huang had 18 sons three of them became
  emperors.
• Murong Jun ???, his eldest son, declared himself
  emperor of Yan and history refers to the state as
  the Former Yan (313-370).
• Murong Ba ???, later renamed Murong Chui ???, the
  third son established the Kingdom of Later Yan
  (384-407/9).
• Murong De ???, his 15th son, established the
  Kingdom of Southern Yan (398-410).
• Note the last ruler of Northern Yan was Gao Yun
  whose name was changed to Murong when he was
  adopted by the Murong Bao ??? (355-398), son of
  Murong Chui.
• Gao Yun is regarded as the last ruler of the
  Former Yan and the first ruler of the Northern
  Yan.

36
The Yan State

• Yan ? was the name of the old northeastern
  kingdom in the Warring States Period.
• By claiming the title of King of Yan, Murong
  Huang moved away from identification with a
  particular tribe to a claim of universal rule and
  downplayed its tribal origins.
• His Chinese advisors never commented on tribal
  affairs nor asked the Xianbei to take up farming.
• They helped guide him toward pragmatic policies
  that would increase the states power.
• They pressed for a greater reorganization of the
  Yan state along traditional Chinese lines with a
  six point program
• Waterworks should be repaired and maintained.
• More refugees put to work farming.
• Excess officials dismissed.
• Excess merchants and craftsman forced to farm.
• The number of students cut and the excess forced
  to farm.
• The ruler should listen to criticism.
• Murong Huang agreed to five of the suggestions.
  he did not agree to dismiss excess officials as
  he was expanding the state and the nomads had a
  tradition of buying their allies.

37
The Former Yan

• Most of Manchuria and the Jin court formally
  recognized Murong Huangs claim as king and his
  son, Murong Jun, had the title "Prince of Yan".
• After the death of Murong Huang, Murong Jun spent
  the next years crushing small rebellions and
  conquering eastern China.
• At that time, northern China was under the
  control of Fu Jian (Former Qin) and the Yangzi
  region to the south remained in the hands of the
  Eastern Jin dynasty.
• In 352, Yan forces captured the Zhao emperor Ran
  Min and seized most of the former Later Zhao
  territory.
• Murong Jun declared himself emperor in 353 and
  incorporated their Chinese territories into a
  functioning government.
• To distinguish the state established by Murong
  Jun from other Yan states historians refer to it
  as the Former Yan ?? (337-370).

38
The Former Yan (2)

• During Murong Juns reign the state expanded from
  only possessing modern Liaoning and parts of
  Hebei to nearly all of the territory north of the
  Yellow River as well as some substantial holdings
  south of the Yellow River.
• Xianbei strategies towards the steppe people were
  more sophisticated than those of the Chinese.
• Tribal leaders were won over by a series of
  marriage alliances linking them to the Murong.
• They disrupted formations of tribal
  confederations.
• When an attack was launched it involved fast
  moving troops who knew steppe conditions and its
  aim was the capture of whole peoples.
• The Murong success was due to their ability to
• Control the steppes.
• Maintain Xianbei loyalty.
• Willingness to employ Chinese officials
• Who promoted agricultural production
• Who gave the Xianbei ruling skills and a
  financial base.
• Who maintained the support of the subject Chinese
  population.

39
Former Yan (3)

• When Murong Jun died in 360, the throne went to
  his young son, Wei but the court questioned his
  fitness to rule.
• They tried to persuade Juns brother, Murong Ke
  ??? (d.357), to take the throne
  (fraternal/lateral succession) but Murong Ke
  refused instead, he ruled as the regent.
• During Murong Kes regency, Yan reached new
  heights of power as Ke led it to new conquests.
• On his deathbed, Ke recommended that his brother,
  Murong Chui succeed him as regent.
• But a rival candidate, Murong Ping ??? seized
  power and the state declined quickly under his
  command
• Internally, the political elite began to expand
  their domains and deprive the treasury of
  revenue.
• Externally, it was facing strong military rivals
  the Former Qin in the west and the Eastern Jin
  to the south.
• Murong Chui was forced to flee to the Former Qin,
  Yans enemy in the west and helped them conquer
  the Former Yan.

40
The Later Yan

• The Later Yan ?? (384-407/9), was situated in
  Hebei and was founded by Murong Chui ???
  (r.384-396) who had fled from the Former Yan.
• In 384, Chui rebelled against the Former Qin and
  declared a new dynasty, the Later Yan.
• This caused the other Murong leaders his son
  and nephews as well as the younger brother of the
  last emperor of the Former Yan to rebel against
  the Former Qin.
• In 387, Murong Chui proclaimed himself emperor
  and allied with Tuoba Gui ??? against the Eastern
  Jin.
• When both Murong Chui and the Tuoba Gui grew in
  strength, their interests began to clash and
  Tuoba Gui began to ally with the Western Yan (not
  one of the Sixteen Kingdoms).
• In 393 Murong Chui began his attack on the
  Western Yan as he wanted to consolidate his
  control to prepare himself for battle against the
  Tuoba.
• By 394, Western Yan had been eliminated and
  Murong Chui attacked Tuoba Gui in (395) but
  Murong Chui died soon after.
• He died in 396 and his successor, Murong Bao ???
  was killed.
• The dynasty continued in Liaoning for another 10
  years before Gao Yun??, an adopted son of Murong
  Bao, usurped the throne from Murong Xi ?
  (r.401-407) and ruled until 409 when the name of
  the state was changed to Northern Yan (409-436).
  

41
Southern Yan

• The Southern Yan ?? (398-410) was established by
  Murong De ???, brother of Murong Chui.
• After Murong Chui's son Murong Bao lost most of
  Later Yan's territory to Northern Wei, Murong De
  went south with his troops and established
  Southern Yan, in modern Shandong but was unable
  to expand further.
• Southern Yan was conquered by the Eastern Jin in
  410 (some histories say it was conquered by the
  Liu-Song ?? successor dynasty to the Eastern
  Jin -- as the leading general, Liu Yu ??, became
  the founder of Liu-Song.
• Although Murong De tried to establish a
  functioning administration he was unable to do so
  as his reign was short only seven years (his
  successor ruled for five years).
• The Southern Yan continued to exist until 410 by
  allying themselves with the Later Qin.

42
Western Qin

• The ruling family of Western Qin was the Qifu??
  clan.
• It was Xianbei but it was made up of a
  confederation of several groups who came into the
  frontier lands of Inner Mongolia from the
  steppes.
• These groups formed an army that shared a common
  mythology.
• They banded together to push into the rich
  frontier lands occupied by farmers, largely
  Chinese and moved into modern Gansu in the mid
  3rd Century.
• The ancestors of the founder, Qi-fu Guoren ????
  (r.385-388) had come from the desert regions and
  his father, had submitted to the Former Qin.
• When Fu Jian was killed, Qi-fu Guoren and his
  uncle rebelled and in 385 Qifu Guoren founded the
  most minor of all the Sixteen Kingdoms, the
  Western Qin ?? (385-400, 409-431).
• Western Qin was destroyed by Yao Xing of the
  Later Qin in 400 but the Qifu was able to come
  back and in 409.
• In 431 the Western Qin was conquered by the
  Xiongnu Kingdom, Da Xia.
• There were four reigns
• the founder ruled for 3 years,
• the second for 2 years and was toppled but came
  back 9 years later and ruled for 3 years.
• the third king ruled for 6 years and
• the last for 3.

43
Southern Liang

• The Southern Liang ?? (397-414) was founded by
  the Tufa ?? family of Xianbei ethnicity.
• The name of the empire Liang ? comes from the
  prefecture Liangzhou ??.
• The Tufa clan was a distant relative of the Tuoba
  clan but according to the History of the Jin (??)
  the name was changed from Tuoba to Tufa because
  one of the Tufa ancestors was born on a blanket,
  and in the Xianbei language, "Tufa" meant
  "blanket."
• When the ruler of Liang, Lü Guang, was in
  trouble, the Tufa broke off one end of the Liang
  state to form the Southern Liang.
• All rulers of the Southern Liang proclaimed
  themselves king.
• There were three rulers, the first ruled for 2
  years, the second for 3, and the third for 12.
• There was continuous warfare with the surrounding
  states during the last years of the dynasty.
• In 414 the Tufa king surrendered to the Eastern
  Jin.

44
Sixteen Kingdoms A Comparison

• The first Xiongnu dynasty fell as the nomads
  thought the court was too Chinese.
• The second Zhao dynasty of Shi Le and Shi Hu fell
  because it was unable to provide a competent
  government for its Chinese subjects who revolted
  and killed the foreign advisors.
• Like the Xiongnu kingdoms, the Ba and Di kingdoms
  were short-lived.
• Succession to leadership in the Ba and Di
  kingdoms was usually violent both Li Shou and
  Fu Jian rose to power after murdering and
  deposing the former emperors.
• The greatest problem for the Former Qin was to
  create a central government which could control
  the tribal peoples and at the same time provide
  an administration acceptable to the Chinese.
• The Xianbei Kingdom of Yan, on the other hand,
  had experience in the gradual development of a
  dual organization for government administration.

45
Sixteen Kingdoms A Comparison (2)

• The first Xianbei dynasties survived the initial
  anarchy period because they were well-organized
  and conservative.
• The rulers learned through experience and
  experimentation to organize and run a dual system
  of administration for the Xianbei and the Chinese
  population on a small scale where mistakes in
  policy were not fatal.
• They were able to develop stable forms of
  government over several generations.
• These Xianbei dynasties had enough power to
  defend themselves against invasions.
• The Murong rulers failed to conquer all north
  China because of
• Internal power struggles.
• Offices filled with relatives
• The very able ones helped to extend Murong rule
  to the Central Plain (during the collapse of the
  Former Zhao)
• Others were not so able and the Yan was later
  conquered by the Former Qin.
• They had to face the power of the Northern Wei.

46
Readings

• The Xianbei, the Rouran (??) and the Northern
  Dynasties
• Barfield, Thomas, The Perilous Frontier, Ch. 3,
  The collapse of Central Order, pp. 101-10 OR
• Poon, Kwok Kin (Dissertation), The Northern Wei
  State and the Juan-Juan Nomadic Tribe (A
  Summary) OR
• Pulleyblank, Edwin G., The High Carts, a
  Turkish Speaking People Before the Turks, in
  Pulleyblank, Edwin G., Central Asia and
  Non-Chinese Peoples of Ancient China, Part VIII,
  98-108.

47
ReferenceWestern Yan

• Historians do not include the Western Yan ??
  (384-394) among the Sixteen Kingdoms as it lasted
  for only 10 years.
• The nephews of Murong Chui had been resettled by
  the Former Qin near Changan ??.
• After the Former Qin ended, Murong Hong ??? (d.
  384) founded his empire of (Western) Yan Murong
  Hong was a son of the Former Yan emperor, Murong
  Jun and a younger brother of Former Yan emperor,
  Murong Wei.
• After Former Yan was destroyed by Former Qin,
  Murong Hong and his brothers were made local
  officials of the Former Qin.
• In 384, he heard that his uncle Murong Chui had
  rebelled against Former Qin and so he gathered
  several thousand Xianbei soldiers and claimed his
  former title of Prince.
• He was killed by his officials who supported his
  brother Murong Chong ??? (d. 386) to succeed him.
• Many followers of Murong Chong wanted to return
  to their homeland in the East.
• In their march eastward, the Western Yan
  confronted and Murong Chui of the Later Yan but
  the Western Yan was weakened by power struggles
  and was defeated by Murong Chui.

48
Reference Biographies of Women

• Di women
• Empress Ren
• Empress Dowager Qiang
• Empress Liang
• Empress Dowager Gou
• Empresses She, Zhang and Qi
• Empress Ren
• Xianbei Women
• Empress Duan, Wife of Murong Huang
• Empress Kezuhun, Wife of Murong Jun
• Princess Duan, First Wife of Murong Chui
• Empress Duan Yuanfei, 5th Wife of Murong Chui

49
Di WomenEmpress Ren of the Cheng-Han

• Empress Ren ??? was the wife of Li Xiong ??
  (d.334), the founding emperor of the Cheng-Han.
• She was named empress by her husband in 315.
• She had no sons but acted as foster mother to the
  next two emperors -- Li Ban ?? (288-334) and Li
  Qi ?? (314-338).
• Li Xiong had 10 sons by his concubines but
  decided to leave the throne to his nephew, Li
  Ban, as Li Bans father ?? (d.303), who had died
  in battle in had been a co-founder of Cheng-Han
  state.
• The sons of Li Xiong were not happy with the
  decision and so they assassinated him soon after
  he came to the throne.
• Li Qi, who had also been fostered by Empress Ren
  was then made emperor.
• During Li Qi's reign, she continued as empress
  dowager.
• When Li Qi was overthrown by Li Shou in 338 the
  latter forged an edict from Empress Dowager Ren
  to legitimize his actions.

50
Di WomenEmpress Dowager Qiang of the Former Qin

• Empress Dowager Qiang ??? (d.356) was the wife of
  Fu Jiàn, the founder of Former Qin she was
  married to Fu Jiàn when he was the heir to his
  father Pu Hong.
• Her brother, Qiang Ping (??), was a key advisor
  to Fu Jiàn.
• She had at least three sons -- Fu Chang (??), Fu
  Sheng (??), and Fu Liu (??).
• Fu Chang, the oldest, was named the heir but was
  killed in battle in 354.
• Empress Dowager Qiang then advised her husband to
  name the youngest son, Fu Liu, as Fu Sheng was
  unbalanced.
• However, Fu Jiàn, believed that Fu Sheng should
  succeed him as he was blind in one eye as there
  was a prophecy that had the phrase "three goats
  shall have five eyes.
• As emperor, Fu Sheng was extremely violent and
  when his uncle, Qiang Ping, tried to persuade him
  not to carry out cruel punishments, Fu Sheng
  became angry, fractured his uncles skull with a
  hammer and executed him.
• A month later, his mother, Empress Dowager Qiang
  died in sadness and fear.

51
Di WomenEmpress Liang of the Former Qin

• Empress Liang (???) (d.355) was the wife of Fu
  Sheng, the second emperor of the former Qin.
• She was named empress after Fu Sheng succeeded to
  the throne.
• Three months after she became empress, Fu Sheng's
  astrologers warned him that the stars showed that
  a great funeral and deaths of major officials
  would come within three years, and that he should
  reform his ways to avoid such disasters.
• Fu Sheng then declared that deaths of the empress
  and her relatives should be sufficient to satisfy
  the warning from the stars.
• So, he executed his wife, two of her uncles and
  another of her relatives.

52
Di WomenEmpress Dowager Gou of the Former Qin

• Empress Dowager Gou ??? was the wife of Fu Xiong
  ?? (son of Pu Hong), and mother of Fu Jian ?? who
  seized power in a coup from his cousin, Fu Sheng.
• After Empress Dowager Gou became a widow it is
  said that she carried on an affair with her
  cousin, Li Wei (??), whom Fu Jian treated like a
  second father.
• Li Wei was a trusted advisor and it was with his
  support that Wang Meng ?? (325-375), became the
  prime minister.
• Around the new year 358, she saw that Fu Jian's
  older brother Fu Fa ?? (not her son) had many
  visitors, and she became concerned that he might
  be a threat to her son, and so, after consulting
  with Li Wei, she ordered Fu Fa to commit
  suicide..

53
Di Women Empresses She, Zhang and Qi of the
Later Qin

• Empress She (???) (d.397) was the wife of
  founding emperor, Yao Chang, of the Later Qin.
• She was said to be the mother of Yao Xing, the
  second emperor of the Later Qin and was named
  Empress Dowager (394) when Yao Xing ascended to
  the throne.
• However, Yao Xing also honored, posthumously,
  Lady Sun, a concubine of his fathers and so some
  suspect that Lady Sun might have been his birth
  mother but that he was raised by Empress She.
• Empress She died in 397, and Yao Xing was said to
  be so sad that he was unable to gather officials
  for imperial meetings and handle important
  matters of state.
• Eventually, he eventually met with his officials
  wearing mourning clothes.
• Yao Xing had two principal wives, each following
  the death of the previous one
• Empress Zhang ??? little is known about her
  except that she was promoted from her previous
  rank within the palace (402).
• Empress Qi ??? in (412) was also promoted from
  the ranks of palace women.

54
Xianbei WomenEmpress Duan, Wife of Murong Huang

• Lady Duan (Empress Duan Wenming ??? (ca.337) was
  a daughter of a tribal chief, a Xianbei state of
  during the Three Kingdoms Period.
• Curing the Jin dynasty the clan dopted the Han
  name Duan and the leader was given the hereditary
  title of Duke (303).
• After their tribe was defeated and absorbed by
  Former Yan, the Duan clan remained honored and
  powerful, and several Former Yan and Later Yan
  empresses, as well as important officials, were
  members of the Duan clan.
• Lady Duan was posthumously named Empress Dowager
  by Murong Jun and so she might have been his
  mother.
• After Murong Chui became emperor of the Later Yan
  he excluded her from her husbands temple and
  instead enshrined his own mother, the Lady Lan,
  who was a concubine.

55
Xianbei Women Empress Kezuhun, Wife of Murong
Jun

• Empress Kezuhun (?????) was married to Murong Jun
  while he was the heir-apparent and was named
  Empress in 353 after he had claimed imperial
  title.
• Her son Murong Wei succeeded to the throne.
• After the death of her husband, she was named
  Empress Dowager and was involved in governmental
  matters, even though Murong Jun's brother, Murong
  Ke, served as regent.
• On his death bed, Murong Ke recommended that
  major military responsibility be given to Murong
  Chui, but Empress Dowager Kezuhun disliked Murong
  Chui, disagreed, and continued to dominate the
  court.
• Murong Chui then fled and joined the forces of
  the Former Qin.
• She was thought to have accused her
  sister-in-law, Princess Duan, wife of Murong
  Chui, of witchcraft for having been disrespectful
  to her Princess Duan died in prison.
• When Murong Chui, established Later Yan, he
  posthumously demoted Empress Kezhuhun to commoner
  status and enshrined Murong Jun's concubine,
  Consort Duan as Empress Dowager.

56
Xianbei Women Princess Duan, First Wife of
Murong Chui

• Princess Duan (d.358), posthumously named Empress
  Chengzhao (???? literally "the successful and
  accomplished empress), was the first wife of the
  Murong Chui.
• Her son, Murong Ling ???, was named heir-apparent
  but he died in battle in 376 and her younger son
  Murong Bao ??? lsucceeded to the throne of the
  Later Yan.
• She was the daughter of Duan ???, who was in line
  for the Dukedom of Liaoxi.
• Because she came from an honored lineage
  (originally on par with Former Yan's imperial
  clan, the Murongs), she did not respect Murong
  Juns wife, Empress Kezuhun (?????) and the
  Empress despised her.
• In 358, perhaps at the Empresss instigation, a
  eunuch falsely accused her of witchcraft and
  Murong Jun had her and her alleged
  co-conspirator, Murong Chui's assistant Gao Bi
  ??, arrested.
• Princess Duan and Gao were tortured, but they
  refused to admit to the charges of witchcraft,
  and because of this the torture was intensified.

57
Xianbei Women Princess Duan, First Wife of
Murong Chui (2)

• Murong Chui sent her a message trying to persuade
  her to end her suffering by admitting to the
  charge (and thus end the torture but be sentenced
  to death). Princess Duan replied
• I am not fearful of death. However, if I falsely
  implicate myself, I admit to treason. I would be
  betraying my ancestors and dragging Your Royal
  Highness into this disaster. The results are
  dire, and I will not do this.
• Because of her refusal to implicate her husband,
  Murong Chui avoided being dragged into the case,
  but she died in prison.
• Murong Chui then married her younger sister, but
  Empress Kezuhun forcibly deposed her and forced
  him to marry her younger sister.
• Murong Chui did not dare refuse but was
  displeased, and Empress Kezuhun was unhappy.
• In 369, Murong Chui divorced Empress Kezuhuns
  sister after 9 years of marriage and remarried
  Princess Duans younger sister who had previously
  been deposed.
• In 388 he married the niece of his first wife and
  she had two sons.
• In 388, after Murong Chui established Later Yan,
  he posthumously honored his first wife as Empress
  Chengzhao.

58
Xianbei Women Empress Duan Yuanfei, 5th Wife of
Murong Chui

• Empress Duan Yuanfei ??? (d. 396) was the niece
  of two of Murong Chui's prior wives (her father
  was the brother of his first wife, the Princesses
  Duan.
• Murong Chui married Duan Yuanfei around 388.
• His younger brother Murong De married her sister
  Duan Jifei around the same time.
• Duan Yuanfei was named empress in 388 and Murong
  Chui favored her and she gave him two sons.
• Empress Duan was described as being intelligent
  and a good judge of character.
• She saw that Murong Chui's heir, Murong Bao,
  lacked governing talents and tried to persuade
  him to make one of his more capable sons, his
  heir but she was unsuccessful.
• When Murong Bao succeeded to the throne he forced
  her to commit suicide saying that if she did
  not do so, he would harm her clan.
• In anger, she said that Murong Bao would soon
  cause the empire's destruction, and then
  committed suicide.
• Initially, Murong Bao refused to give her an
  empress' burial honors, but on the advice of his
  officials he agreed to bury her with imperial
  honors.