Mainstreaming gender in labour statistics

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Mainstreaming gender in labour statistics

• Training slides
• For producers and users
• Of labour statistics

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Topics

• Justification
• Introduction to gender issues
• Mainstreaming in labour statistics
• International guidelines
• Indicators
• Summing up what needs to be done to mainstream
  gender in labour statistics

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Justification

• To address policies and programmes on GENDER
  EQUALITY
• Core principle of the ILO
• Governments strongly committed
• Beijing Platform for Action
• To improve statistics themselves

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Introduction to gender issues

• Sex and gender
• Gender roles
• Gender equality and gender equity
• Gender mainstreaming
• Gender analysis
• Application to labour issues

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Sex and gender

• GENDER
• Social differences and relations between the
  sexes that are learned, change over time vary
  across cultures

• SEX
• Biological differences that men women, boys
  girls are born with, that are universal

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Gender roles

• Roles assigned to men and women in a society as
   male  and  female 
• Caretaker of household and children
• Breadwinner

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Gender equality

• Equal rights, responsibilities, treatment, and
  valuation of both sexes, so that women and men,
  girls and boys can participate in, decide on and
  benefit from development on an equal footing.
• Same fundamental Human and Workers rights
• Equal Value and Fair Distribution of
• responsibilities and opportunities
• workload, decision making and income

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Gender equity

• Also known as Gender Justice fair treatment of
  both sexes that take into account and address the
  different needs of the men, women, boys and
  girls, cultural barriers and the effects of
  (past) discrimination of the specific group.

A stoke and a fox cannot eat from the same types
of dishes. Equal ? the Same
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Gender mainstreaming 1997 UN definition

• Strategy to achieve gender equality.
• Process of
• assessing the implications for women and men of
  any planned action, including legislation,
  policies or programmes, in any area and at all
  levels.
• Incorporating the concerns and situations of
  women and men into all actions
• So that women and men benefit equally of them,
  and inequality is not perpetuated

Source United Nations Economic and
Social Council (ECOSOC) Agreed Conclusions
E/1997/L.30, p.2), as endorsed by the Beijing
Platform of Action, 1995, Fourth World Conference
on Women
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Gender analysis

• Tool for gender mainstreaming
• Evaluates/diagnoses in an objective way,
  similarities and differences between men and
  women with respect to these four areas
• Division of labour
• Needs, constraints and opportunities
• Access and control over resources and benefits
• Constraints and opportunities
• Capacity of organisations and mechanisms to
  promote equality

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Practical Strategic Needs

• Roles of men and women are different in
  families and workplaces, therefore, their needs
  are different.

Strategic needs equality, empowerment e.g.
sharing of family responsibilities decision
making, equal access to education and training
Practical needs basic needs, survival
needs e.g. food, water, shelter, income, clothing
and healthcare
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Gender analysis for labour issues
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Gender mainstreaming in labour statistics

• Characteristics of statistics that target gender
  concerns
• What does gender mainstreaming consist of
• Why consider gender in particular
• Benefits and difficulties of gender mainstreaming
  in labour statistics
• Questions to ask
• Four major domains of inequality

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What does it consist of

• Evaluate and incorporate the situation of women
  equally to that of men
• In all topics to be measured
• In all statistical definitions and
  classifications used
• When designing measurement methodologies
• When collecting the information
• When producing tables, graphs and reports

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Why consider gender in particular?

• Women and men differ in behaviour, resources,
  constraints
• Women tend to be omitted from labour statistics
  to a larger extent than men (sex distribution of
  excluded groups is not even)
• Lack of detail is more prevalent in work
  situations typical of women
• Missing topics hinder adequate description of
  situations typical of women
• Tables often do not consider family context,
  where women and men have different roles

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Benefits of gender mainstreaming labour statistics

• Improved labour statistics by identifying gaps
  and weaknesses
• Promotion of equality by producing data which
  reflect differences and similarities between men
  and women in the workplace

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Difficulties

• Conventional perceptions
• Set new priorities and objectives
• Need to change old designs/concepts
• Extra measurement effort cost implications
• Inherent limitations of measurement methods

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Inherent limitations of measurement methods

• On range and type (detail) of information
• Establishments and Administrative registers will
  keep records about data that is useful for their
  internal purposes administrative definitions
• Household based surveys can obtain any type of
  information but suffer from response errors
• On coverage of workers
• Establishment surveys and administrative
  registers often have limited worker coverage
  (paid workers in the formal sector)
• Household based surveys have the largest worker
  coverage but also exclude persons (e.g. living in
  collective dwellings, the armed forces, children)

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Questions to ask

• Do the definitions used
• Do the questionnaire and methods of data
  collection
• Do the tables and indicators
• Are there any new topics of interest?

• Cover
• Apply
• Affect
• women to the same extent than men?

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Balancing life and work

• Women and men have different roles in society
• As breadwinners and caregivers
• These roles determine their constraints
• Women cannot dedicate as much time and energy as
  men to work activities, therefore
• Women tend to stay at home, if they can afford it
• Otherwise, they will work less hours, in less
  demanding jobs, closer to home, on less permanent
  jobs

The presence of children makes men work more and
women less
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Informal economy and unpaid work

• Women will work in the informal economy to a
  larger extent than men
• Even though in absolute numbers they are less
  numerous
• Women perform most of the household chores, which
  are recognised as work but are not included in
  employment statistics

When all hours of work are considered, women work
more than men in practically all countries in the
world
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Labour market segregation

• Women and men behave differently in the labour
  market, they do different activities in different
  conditions
• Differences in the entry to/exit from the labour
  market
• Differences in the types of economic activities
  carried out
• Differences in their labour inputs
• Differences in their returns to labour

The more detail in statistics, the more
segregated the labour market will appear
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Income inequalities

• Women earn less than men in all countries of the
  world
• This is due in part to differences in
• Their occupation
• Their hours of work
• Their level of education and skills
• Their seniority or work history

Even after correcting for these factors, however,
women earn less than men. The difference that
cannot be explained is used as an indicator of
 discrimination .
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Entry/exit

• Do they work ? Employment
• Do they look for work? Unemployment
• Do they work or look for work? Labour force
• Do they enter and exit the labour market? Labour
  turnover, life cycle patterns

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Types of activities

• The type of work they do - occupations
• The type of establishment they work in -
  industries
• The type of contract - status in employment
• The type of employer - institutional sector
• The size of establishment where they work
• Where they work - place of work
• Hazardousness of their work occupational
  injuries and disease
• Their voice union density and representation
• Social security coverage

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Labour inputs

• How much do they work - hours actually
  worked/usually worked, overtime,
  part-time/full-time
• How inconvenient are the hours they work - Night
  work, shift work, weekend work
• How often are they absent from work and for what
  reasons family reasons, economic reasons,
  social reasons

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Returns to labour

• Income from employment
• Basic wages
• Overtime payments
• Fringe benefits
• Social security benefits
• Regular and irregular payments

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Characteristics of statistics that target gender
concerns

• To be useful for gender concerns, labour
  indicators need to
• Cover the whole working population
• Including part-time workers, self employed
  workers, working in the informal economy, casual
  workers, unpaid workers, etc.
• Relate to relevant topics
• Related to the four major domains of inequality
• Be disaggregated AT LEAST by SEX, and
• Be disaggregated with sufficient detail by
  explanatory variables, particularly on family
  context

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Effect of worker coverage
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Relevant subjects beyond Convention 160

•  Work  in an enlarged sense, unpaid, barter,
  volunteering
• Working time arrangements
• Home-based work
• Unstable employment
• Poverty
• Freedom of association, representation
• Social security
• Access to and control over productive resources
• Allocation of benefits among household members
• Violence at the workplace

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Example of a relevant topic
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Examples of sufficient detail

• Occupations
• Professionals by type doctors vs nurses,
  physicists vs teachers
• Managers in small vs large firms
• Craftworkers in mining vs clothes manufacturing
• Status in employment
• Regular vs. casual employees
• Subsistence workers and homeworkers vs employers
• Income
• Basic pay vs overtime pay, bonuses and social
  security contributions
• Hours of work
• Normal hours vs overtime and absence from work

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Example of family context
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Another example the unemployment rate
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Example the unemployment rate
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Example part-time workers
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Example part-time workers
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Example the inactivity rate
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Example the inactivity rate
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Example composition of the inactive population
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Example the absence rate
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Example the absence rate
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Example the absence rate
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Example days of absence
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Example days of absence
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International guidelines on gender mainstreaming

• Adopted by the 17th International Conference of
  Labour Statisticians, 2003
• Labour statisticians from national statistical
  institutes, ministries of labour, employer and
  worker organisations
• Meets every 5-7 years
• Content of guidelines

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Content of guidelines

• Requires political will at all levels
• Statistics by sex
• About relevant topics
• Covering ALL workers and ALL work situations
• With sufficient detail
• Disaggregated by useful variables

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Political will

• Essential condition
• Commitment at all levels
• Reward system
• Skilled staff
• Involvement in cross-cutting considerations and
  networking
• Better advocates for benefit of countries
• Observe long-lasting development

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Statistics by sex not always possible

• Problems of concept
• Labour cost
• Price indices
• Problems with source of information based on
  registers (Establishment surveys, Administrative
  records)
• Do not record the information by sex
• Problems of presentation
• Can and should be eliminated

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Complete worker coverage not always possible

• Coverage because of link to SNA-93
• Coverage in concepts
• Coverage because of use of short or long
  reference periods
• Short reference periods will exclude
  intermittent, seasonal and casual activities
• Coverage because of limitations in measurement
  methods

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Measurement methods

• Household surveys
• Establishment surveys tend to exclude
• Self employed persons
• Paid employed persons in small establishments
• Paid employment in larger establishments who are
  casual workers, absent for long periods, etc.
  (i.e., who are not in payrolls)
• Administrative records will exclude persons not
  covered by the administrative system

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Household surveys

• When measuring employment tend to exclude
  persons who do small jobs, unless an activity
  list is included
• Persons who work a few hours and whose social
  role is to be a housewife, student or retired
• Unpaid family workers, casual workers, etc. who
  work a few hours
• Workers without fixed work location
• Armed forces and other population groups
• When measuring the informal sector tend to
  exclude secondary jobs
• But many workers work in the informal sector in
  their secondary jobs
• When not periodic will not capture intermittent
  and seasonal activities

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Activity list Pakistan
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Activity list South Africa
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Definition of work, SNA-93
General production boundary
Services rendered by households for free for the
consumption of own/another household
Services rendered by corporations, government and
NPISHs or by households for sale
Goods produced by corporations, government or
NPISH units
Goods produced by households for the consumption
of own/another hh when contribution is not
significant
Goods produced by households for consumption of
own/another households when the contribution is
significant
Restricted production boundary
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Treatment of the production for own final use,
SNA-93
Source Based on System of National Accounts,
1993.
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Coverage in concepts

• Employment
• Unemployment
• Informal sector
• Wages
• Industrial disputes

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Concept of employment

• Includes all persons who carry out an activity
  within the restricted boundary for at least one
  hour
• Even if their main activity is to be a student,
  retired or home-worker
• Even if the person does not earn any money
• Includes persons who are absent from a job
• Because of a temporary absence (sickness,
  vacation, etc.)
• But may include persons on extended absences who
  do not contribute to production
• Excludes
• Persons who do mainly volunteer and domestic
  chores
• Persons below a certain age (e.g., working
  children)

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Concept of unemployment

• Includes persons who are exerting a pressure for
  jobs in the labour market
• Identified as persons who do something to get a
  job and who are available for work
• But may exclude
• Persons who want to work but do not seek work,
  even if they are more likely to find work than
  the unemployed
• Persons who have social restrictions to be
  available for certain types of jobs, e.g., work
  outside the house

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Concept of the informal sector

• Includes workers in units which are unregistered,
  small or uncovered by labour legislation
• Whether it is the main or the secondary job
• Excludes workers in
• Domestic work
• Outwork/homework
• Work for the benefit of own household

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Concepts of wages

• Income related to employment includes all income
  components for all workers
• Including social security benefits and irregular
  bonuses
• Earnings
• Covers only the paid employed
• Includes only income regularly received from the
  employer
• Excludes irregular bonuses, payments in kind and
  social security benefits
• Wage rates
• Covers only the paid employed
• Includes only the agreed wages to be paid for
  normal hours of work
• Excludes payment for overtime and includes wages
  not paid due to absence

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Coverage in industrial disputes

• Includes
• Legal or official disputes
• Above a certain minimum duration (in days)
• May not include
• Workers indirectly involved

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Sufficient detail

• The more detail, the clearer it is to see gender
  differences
• Requires that coding be done at the most detailed
  level of the classification sustained by the
  information provided
• Sample size in household and establishment
  surveys
• Will not allow much disaggregation
• Classifications used (occupations, status in
  employment, industry, occupational injuries)
• May not provide descriptions about typical
  womens jobs to the same extent than mens

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Disaggregations by useful variables

• Personal characteristics
• Sex, age, education, civil status
• Family context
• Presence of small children or other persons
  requiring care
• Job characteristics
• Occupations, status in employment
• Variable components
• Of income bonuses, overtime, social security
  benefits, payments in kind, etc.
• Of hours of work overtime, absence from work,
  travelling time, short breaks, etc.

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Family context variable
Cohabiting (marital) Status
Cohabiting (married, living together)
Not cohabiting (single, divorced, widowed)
Children in the Household Below 6?
Children in the Household below 6?
yes
no
yes
no
Not cohabiting with small children
Not cohabiting with no small children
Cohabiting with small children
Cohabiting with no small children
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Indicators

• Types of indicators
• Indicators to measure segregation in
• The entry to/exit from the labour market
• The types of economic activities carried out
• Labour inputs
• Returns to labour
• International indicators

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Types of indicators

• Measures of relationship
• Ratios relation between two quantities (a/b)
• Proportions, percentages quotient between one
  part and the total (a/(ab))
• Index numbers
• Measures of central tendency
• Mean, median, mode
• Measures of variability
• Frequency distribution, range, standard deviation
  
• Shape of the distribution
• Skewness, kurtosis

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Index numbers

• Value in relation to a standard value (often
  100)
• When are index numbers used
• Summarize large quantities of qualitative
  information
• ID ½ ? Mi/M - Fi/F
• Indicate variations in time
• Wage index (Wt W(t-1))/W(t-1)
• Types
• Simple index number
• Gender pay gap (Wm-Wf)/Wm
• Weighted index number
• Laspeyres price index ? Pi1Qi0/ ? Pi0Qi0

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Indicators to measure entry/exit

• Activity rate
• Gross Labour force/total population 100
• Net Labour force/working age population 100
• Employment rate
• Employed persons/working age population 100
• Unemployment rate
• Unemployed persons/Labour force 100

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Indicators to measure activities carried out

• Share of women in category i
• Women in category i/total workers in category i
  100
• Fi/Ni 100
• Percentage of all women in category I
• Women in category i/all women 100
• Fi/F 100
• Sex ratio (in category i)
• Women in category i/Men in category i 100
• Fi/Mi 100
• Dissimilarity index (ID)
• ID ½ ? Mi/M - Fi/F

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Indicators to measure labour inputs

• Percentage distribution of workers by hours
  worked per week
• Percentage women/men who work less/more than x
  hours per week
• Distribution of workers by working time
  arrangements

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Indicators to measure returns to labour

• Gender wage gap
• (Wm Wf)/Wm 100
• Gender wage gap corrected for differences in
  occupations/industries
• 1/N ?Ni (Wmi - Wfi)/Wmi
• Average wage
• 1/N ? Wi
• Median wage - wage below and above which half of
  the population is found
• Distribution of workers by categories of income
  earned

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International indicators

• Millennium Development Goals http//mdgs.un.org/un
  sd/mdg/Default.aspx
• 8 objectives
• One objective about gender equality
• One indicator about gender equality in the labour
  market MDG11 Proportion of women in paid
  non-agricultural employment
• HDI Human Development Indicators by sex
  http//hdr.undp.org/statistics/
• Gender wage gap only indicator used in EU region
• Inevitable limitations

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Summing up what needs to be done

• Develop and measure NEW TOPICS
• When source does not cover ALL workers, calculate
  ESTIMATES on the extent of excluded groups by sex
• Design MEASUREMENT METHODS to include
• Personal and family context variables
• Sufficiently detailed information
• Do not forget activity lists in household
  surveys
• Design STATISTICAL TABLES that show up gender
  distinctions
• Cross-classify all topics by SEX and FAMILY
  context variables

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