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Inclusion

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Title: Inclusion


1
Inclusion General Education
  • Kristie, Kim, Sharyn,
  • Lauren, and Helene

2
Outline
  • Education Requirements
  • What is Inclusion?
  • What should be taught?
  • How should staff teach?
  • How should staff be trained?
  • What is supported inclusion?
  • Why consider supported inclusion?
  • Will a child benefit from inclusion placement?
  • How do you identify potential inclusion sites?
  • What can be taught in inclusion setting?
  • How should staff teach in inclusion setting?
  • Recommended strategies for support staff
  • How to know if child is learning in inclusion
    setting?
  • It is working?
  • Research

3
Educational Requirements(Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • Few teachers and specialists have been
    specifically trained to work with children with
    autism.
  • Undergraduate programs focus on frequent, milder
    disabilities
  • Students with autism can achieve reasonable
    progress if special/detailed attention is given
    to their education
  • In Delaware -there is a certification for
    teachers of children with autism/ severely
    handicapped students

4
Delaware Requirements (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • Educational requirements
  • (3 core courses covering-
  • Topics of assessment
  • Curriculum design
  • Teaching procedures
  • Behavior management
  • Functional communication training

5
Delaware Requirements (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • 2 elective courses
  • Advanced behavior analysis
  • Augmentative communication system
  • Pre-school programming
  • Transitional programming
  • Vocational programming

6
Delaware Requirements (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • Additionally, specialists (speech, psychology)
    are required to have their Masters degree in
    their area of specialty and have coursework in
    Applied Behavior Analysis.

7
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • The federal law states that all children are
    entitled to a free and appropriate education.
  • The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
    (IDEA) includes a mandate that all services
    should be provided in the least restrictive
    environment.

8
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • The term least restrictive environment implies
    that a range of educational options must be
    available, and placement decisions must be based
    on each students individual needs.
  • The phrase phrase full inclusion is not part of
    the federal mandate.

9
What is Inclusion? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • Inclusion is a term which expresses commitment to
    educate each child, to the maximum extent
    appropriate, in the school and classroom he or
    she would otherwise attend.
  • It involves bringing the support services to the
    child (rather than moving the child to the
    services) and requires only that the child will
    benefit from being in the class (rather than
    having to keep up with the other students)

10
What is Full Inclusion? (Maurice, Green,
Luce, 1996)
  • The term full inclusion has come to be associated
    with the idea that all students with special
    needs must be placed with other peers their age
    full time.
  • Services must be provided within the regular
    classroom setting.

11
What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • Two common deficits found in young children with
    autism are
  • 1) Interacting and communicating with other
    people
  • 2) Inappropriate behaviors ,including tantrums,
    aggression, self-injury, and other behaviors that
    draw unwanted social attention
  • The first duty is to decide what functional
    skills should be taught to preschoolers that they
    will find immediately useful in their lives at
    school and at home.

12
What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • One way to identify functional skills is to
    review the places, people, and expectations that
    a child encounters throughout the day.
  • These domains can be categorized as follows
  • Domestic Skills (i.e. skills associated with
    eating, dressing, cleaning oneself the
    environment)
  • School-Based Activities(i.e. staying with a
    group, staying seated at the table ,following
    directions, transitioning between activities and
    locations, possible academic activities, group
    and individual play routines, etc.)
  • Community Skills(i.e. going shopping for
    groceries, eating in fast-food and sit-down
    restaurants, walking in the neighborhood or the
    mall, riding in the car, etc.)

13
What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • Some skills may occur only in specific locations
    (e.g. home vs. school), other skills apply across
    domains and settings
  • Communication Skills (e.g. expressing
    significant choices and needs, calmly rejecting
    or saying No, asking for help, responding to
    simple instructions , imitating sounds, words,
    songs, etc.)
  • Social interaction skills (e.g. imitating the
    actions of adults and peers, responding to
    greetings, initiating greetings, maintaining
    social approaches from adults and peers,
    initiating social approaches to adults and peers
    etc.)
  • Alternatives to inappropriate behaviors (e.g.
    learning to wait, asking for help, learning to
    play with a toy instead of fingers, etc.)

14
What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • Two broad skill areas are reviewed when thinking
    about communication
  • 1)Using language expressively
  • 2)Understanding what is said
  • For children with autism, they often must be
    taught independently.
  • Before they can acquire speech functionally they
    must learn a number of skills (e.g. imitating
    sounds and words)

15
What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • It may be useful for the parents to teach the
    children alternative means of communication until
    (or while) functional vocal speech is acquired.
  • One system that has been used successfully to
    enable children with autism to communicate with
    pictures and symbols is the Picture Exchange
    Communication System (PECS Bondy Frost, 1994b).

16
What should be taught?(Green,1996)
  • Lastly, when aiming to reduce or eliminate
    problem behaviors, we must know what we would
    like the child to do instead.
  • Is it equally important to decide what the child
    should be doing.
  • It must make sense for the childs
    perspective..not just to please us (e.g. if a boy
    screams to get attention we must teach him
    another way to get attention)

17
What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • When considering priority objectives for
    communication skills development, parents need to
    understand the different functions served by
    certain key communication responses.
  • Requesting is learned and maintained because it
    helps the child get desired items (e.g. snacks,
    drinks, favorite toys, etc.)
  • Spontaneous communication is learned and
    maintained because it gains the attention of
    other people (e.g. when a child says, Look at
    the bird!.
  • Parents should know which types of communication
    skills the parents are teaching and should stress
    the importance of teaching spontaneous
    communication early on.

18
What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • It is important for the parents to work with
    staff to develop IEPs for their children which
    will address these skills.

19
How Should Staff Teach? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • Parent involvement
  • Measurement
  • Objectives
  • Response definitions
  • Settings
  • Time of day
  • Prompts
  • Reinforcers
  • Error correction
  • Generalization
  • Problematic behavior
  • Goals should be useful inside and outside of the
    classroom
  • Parent training

20
Staff Training (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • Commitment to on going staff training throughout
    the school year
  • Core training for all professionals and
    paraprofessionals
  • Staff manual - detailed, specific to program,
    based on principles of ABA

21
Staff Training (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • Staff members are observed and must show
    competence in specific strategies
  • Active mentoring program
  • New staff designated a mentor

22
What is Supported Inclusion? (Maurice, Green,
Luce, 1996)
  • Supported inclusion is defined as the act of
    sending a student with autism or Pervasive
    Development Disorders (PDD) into a regular
    education accompanied by an aide or instructor
    trained in the principles of Applied Behavior
    Analysis (ABA).

23
Why Consider Supported Inclusion? (Maurice,
Green, Luce, 1996)
  • The decision to try supported inclusion should
    include parents, regular education personnel,
    behavioral/educational consultants, and school
    administration.

24
Why Consider Supported Inclusion? (Maurice,
Green, Luce, 1996)
  • Careful consideration of the following objectives
    should be accomplished
  • 1). To generalize social skills learned in a
    structured, one-to one teaching to a setting with
    typically- developing, aged- matched peers.
  • 2). To learn new social skills.

25
Why Consider Supported Inclusion? (Maurice,
Green, Luce, 1996)
  • 3). To generalize academic skills learned in a
    structured (one-to-one) teaching situation to a
    group instruction setting with typically
    developing, aged-matched peers.
  • 4). To learn new academic skills.

26
Why Consider Supported Inclusion? (Maurice,
Green, Luce, 1996)
  • 5). To gradually and systematically increase the
    students time in the regular education setting
    in preparation for a full transition.
  • The time should be increased contingent on the
    childs achievement of target objectives, and
    support personnel are gradually faded until the
    childs included for the full school day.

27
Will your child Benefit from an inclusion
placement? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • As your child begins to generalize skills, you
    may want to consider if placement in a setting
    with typically developing peers would be helpful.
  • The child should demonstrate the prerequisite
    skills with proficiency not only in the
    specialized education setting but in various
    other situations with other people before
    inclusion placement begins.

28
Will your child Benefit from an inclusion
placement? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • The prerequisite skills follow
  • 1.Language Skills
  • A. Follow two-step directions when presented to a
    group
  • B. Communicate needs and desires
  • C. Answer simple questions
  • D. Ask simple questions
  • E. Engages in simple exchanges of conversation
  • F. Recalls experiences

29
Will your child Benefit from an inclusion
placement? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • Some questions to ask should be
  • What is a functional level of performance?
  • How accurate and consistent does the performance
    have to be to produce positive outcomes for the
    child in various natural situations?
  • What level of performance is expected of typical
    children of the same age?
  • What is expected of most children in the
    inclusion setting you are considering?

30
Will your child Benefit from an inclusion
placement? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • A range of performance on academic tasks is
    considered acceptable for any group of first
    grade children perfect scores on every test is
    not a realistic criterion for most typical
    children, nor would it be for a child with
    autism.
  • Most teachers in typical classrooms have high
    standards for all children in certain areas (e.g.
    independent toileting, remaining quiet when the
    teacher is talking, and refraining for disruptive
    behaviors)
  • Generally, high accuracy and consistency criteria
    should be set for the acquisition and
    generalization of high priority skills (e.g. 90
    accuracy for 3 consecutive sessions, with 3
    different adults or children in 3 different
    settings).

31
Will your child Benefit from an inclusion
placement? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • The prerequisite skills follow
  • 1.Language Skills
  • A. Follow two-step directions when presented to a
    group
  • B. Communicate needs and desires
  • C. Answer simple questions
  • D. Ask simple questions
  • E. Engages in simple exchanges of conversation
  • F. Recalls experiences

32
Prerequisite skills. (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • 2. Social Skills
  • A. Takes turns during activities
  • B. Walks quietly
  • C. Answers simple questions
  • D. Participate in circle activities
  • E. Initiates play activities with peers with or
    without adult prompts
  • F. Imitates peer play

33
Prerequisite skills. (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • 3. Academic Skills
  • A. Learns through observation of others
  • B. Waits quietly
  • C. Raises hand to seek adult assistance
  • D. Learns targeted objectives during group
    instruction
  • E. Completes grade-level academic curriculum

34
Prerequisite skills. (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • 4. Behavior Skills
  • A. Responds to delayed contingencies(reinforcement
    is delivered to child following a period of time
    rather than immediately after the targeted
    behavior e.g., the mother contracts with her
    child for ice cream after preschool if the child
    follows directions. The reinforcer is provided
    after school so as not to draw extra attention to
    the child during school.)
  • B. Exhibits disruptive behaviors at near-zero
    levels in all environments
  • C. Stereotypic behavior under stimulus control
    that is, the child engages in stereotypic
    behavior, if at all, only under certain stimulus
    conditions (e.g. alone during playtime at home)
    and not under other conditions (e.g. in public
    places like the classroom).

35
How do you identify potential inclusion sites?
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • Community settings
  • Preschools
  • Kindergarten and primary classes
  • Team review of potential site
  • Inclusion coordinator and/or parent, observe each
    class for 1 hour
  • Other considerations
  • Age
  • Distance from home or specialized school
  • Teacher characteristics
  • Classroom schedule
  • Class size

36
What can be taught in
an inclusion setting?? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)
  • Choose specific objectives for inclusion
  • Consider students strengths and weaknesses
  • What is the students purpose for being in
    inclusion (e.g. socialization)?

37
How Do You Teach Students in the Inclusion
Setting? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • Support staff who work directly with students in
    inclusion settings must be trained in ABA. They
    must be competent in data collection, time delay,
    prompt fading, and positive reinforcement
    procedures.

38
Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • 1). Shadow student and systematically fade back
    as soon as possible. Shadow means to sit or stand
    directly behind the student to provide prompting
    and reinforcement as necessary.
  • The physical present of the support staff may to
    severe to control the students behavior.
    Systematically fading back shifts that control to
    the teacher, activity, or setting.

39
Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • 2). Support a student under the following
    circumstances
  • A. To Stop the student from engaging in
    inappropriate behavior such as stereotypy
  • B. To prompt the student to follow a teachers
    verbal instruction within 15 seconds
  • C. To prompt the student to begin independent
    seat work within 15 seconds after an instruction.
  • D. To prompt the student to respond verbally to a
    peers social interaction
  • E. To prompt the student to sit appropriately

40
Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • 3). Students are to follow the classroom
    teachers instructions. If a student does not
    follow the instruction, provide a gestural or
    physical prompt. The teachers instructions
    should never be repeated by the support staff.
  • 4). Provide support or prompt only after 15
    seconds elapse after the classroom teacher gives
    a direction

41
Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • 5). Give subtle physical prompt from behind to
    get the student of function independently. Fade
    prompts as rapidly as possible.
  • 6). Provide intermittent verbal and social
    reinforcement when appropriate. Thin
    reinforcement as rapidly as possible.
  • 7). If a student asks a question or makes a
    statement to the support staff, redirect him to
    address the classroom teacher.

42
Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • 8). Foster social interaction as often as
    possible.
  • 9). If a skill has been targeted for instruction,
    follow the written teaching procedure.
  • 10.) Summarize data on target skills daily on
    graphs.

43
Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • Prompts or support are typically provided a brief
    time delay because it is hoped that the student
    will begin to follow the naturally occurring
    prompts in the inclusion setting.
  • The support staff should wait 15 seconds and
    observe to see if the students responds.
  • Sometimes the day needs to be reduced due to the
    rapid pace in the class.

44
Problems (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • If inappropriate behaviors occur
  • (e.g. tantrums, vocalizations) the teacher should
    review the program to see if this is an
    appropriate placement.
  • The students placement should be suspended until
    the behaviors are appropriate.
  • The student should be placed back into the
  • inclusion setting as soon as possible.

45
How Do You Know If Your Child Is Learning In The
Inclusion Site? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • Once specific objectives are chosen for your
    child, procedures for measuring performance on
    each objective should be selected.
  • The appropriate measure depends on the nature of
    the skill and the conditions under which it is to
    be demonstrated by the child.
  • You should become familiar with standard direct
    behavioral measures such as frequency, per
    trial, or per opportunity, duration, latency,
    and others (Cooper, Heron, Heward,1987).

46
How Do You Know If Your Child Is Learning In The
Inclusion Site? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • Collect baseline data on all programs prior to
    starting a teaching intervention
  • Baseline data indicate the level of a behavior
    prior to any intervention and are important in
    planning for effective intervention.
  • Setting appropriate criteria is often difficult
    when dealing with a teaching environment that
    changes from day to day as in most regular
    classrooms.
  • It is also important to record data on the
    performances of a variety of peers on the same
    skills as those targeted for the student with
    autism.
  • Two or three days of data should be collected
    each month on the peers to assess changes in
    behavior due to maturation or other variables not
    related to the specific intervention applied to
    your child.

47
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • Data on targeted objectives should be reviewed
    weekly to monitor progress toward goals. When
    data are summarized and graphed, you can visually
    assess the progress.
  • If you are recording data on a behavior to be
    reduced, such as stereotypy, the graph should
    show a decreasing trend.
  • In regard to academic skills, identify with the
    teacher any opportunities she uses to evaluate
    performance for all students (e.g. weekly
    spelling tests, worksheets, mazes).
  • This measurement procedure is referred to as
    permanent product, in that a final product is
    produced from which you can assess progress.

48
Is it working? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
  • Objective data must be collected to assess a
    learners progress in the inclusion site.
  • What are the indications that the student is
    successful in the inclusion site?
  • Independent functioning the student is
    performing most of the time independently. This
    validates that the teaching procedures are
    successful.
  • Mastery of objectives
  • Student is passing classroom tests. If learner is
    passing the same tests as typically developing
    peers, then the child is learning and the
    teaching is successful.
  • Questionnaire Have teachers fill out a
    questionnaire. The questionnaire should consist
    of questions that assess the students behaviors
    of following the class room routine, on-task
    behavior, independent completion of assignments,
    is the learner functioning successfully in the
    setting.
  • Increasing inclusion time
  • When it is not working
  • Problematic behavior

49
Research
  • Article
  • A Participatory Action Research Approach to
    Evaluating Inclusive School Programs
  • Purpose
  • Dymond (2001) reviewed the literature on
    inclusive school program evaluations and proposes
    a model for evaluating inclusive schools.
  • Key elements of the model are that it 1).
    includes stakeholders in the evaluation process
    though a participatory action research approach,
    2). analyzes both program processes and outcomes,
    3) uses multiple methods and measures, 4) and
    obtains perceptions from diverse stakeholder
    groups.

50
(Dymond, 2001)
  • Importance of Review
  • Efforts to evaluate inclusion have focused on the
    efficacy of inclusive education as a service
    delivery model.
  • A need exists for a comprehensive process to
    assist the schools that embrace inclusions to
    evaluate their programs.
  • Most evaluations have focused on the efficacy of
    inclusive education opposed to the efficacy of an
    inclusive school program.

51
(Dymond, 2001)
52
(Dymond, 2001)
  • Description of Existing Program Evaluations
  • Rossman and Salzma (1995) have proposed a
    classification system for organizing and
    comparing evaluations of inclusive inclusion
    programs.
  • They suggest that evaluations be described
    according to their program features (purpose,
    complexity, scope, target population, and
    duration, and features of the evaluation (design
    methods, instrumentation, and sample).
  • The classification system was adaptive for this
    study to describe the significant features of 20
    program evaluations.

53
(Dymond, 2001)
  • Scope of Evaluations
  • Evaluations of inclusive school programs have
    been completed at the district or building level.
  • Of the 20 evaluations reviewed, 1 evaluated an
    inclusion class, 7 were completed at the building
    level, 10 focused on programs across a school
    district, and 2 targeted multiple districts.

54
(Dymond, 2001)
55
(Dymond, 2001)
Results
56
(Dymond, 2001)
  • Models for Conducting Inclusive School Programs
  • Relatively little information is available in the
    literature to suggest appropriate procedures and
    guidelines for evaluating inclusive school
    programs.
  • The only model that was clearly articulated and
    employed in an evaluation was presented by Fox
    and Ysseldyke (1977).
  • They used Stakes (1967) model (a naturalistic
    and participant-oriented approach) to analyze the
    antecedents, transactions, and outcomes of an
    inclusion program.

57
(Dymond, 2001)
58
(Dymond, 2001)
59
(Dymond, 2001)
60
(Dymond, 2001)
61
(Dymond, 2001)
  • The Necessity of Program Evaluations
  • Should be driven by the stakeholders and their
    needs of information
  • It is imperative that evaluations reflect the
    manner in which school defines and implements
    inclusion.
  • By assessing processes and outcomes, employing
    multiple methods and measures, and gathering
    diverse stakeholders perspectives, and involving
    stakeholders in the design and implementation of
    the study, investigators can provide a schools
    stakeholders with meaningful information that may
    lead to the development of inclusive education
    practices.

62
Introduction
  • Article Teaching elementary students with
    developmental disabilities to recruit teacher
    attention in a general education classroom
    effects of teacher praise and academic
    productivity
  • Craft, Alber, and Heward ( 1998) conducted a
    study to see if students with developmental
    disabilities could be taught to recruit teacher
    attention in a general education classroom by
    measuring the effects of recruiting on academic
    productivity and accuracy.
  • Students were taught when, how, and how often to
    recruit teacher attention.
  • Previous studies found increased recruiting and
    teacher praise (Hrydowy et. al., 1984 Morgan et
    al, 1983), but no data on recruiting for academic
    tasks.
  • Academic productivity is essential in the
    classroom because the ultimate purpose of
    training students to recruit teacher praise is to
    maintain and extend the targeted academic or
    social skill for what they are recruiting praise
    for.

63
(Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)
  • Research questions asked
  • What are the effects of training elementary
    students with developmental disabilities to
    recruit teacher attention in the special
    education classroom on the following
  • 1. Frequency of regular education students
    recruiting responses in the general ed class
  • 2. Frequency of teacher praise received by
    students in the regular ed class
  • 3. The students academic productivity and
    accuracy while completion of spelling worksheets
    in the general ed class

64
Some findings (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)
  • Contingent teacher praise and attention produces
    reliable and significant improvements in
    childrens behavior in elementary classrooms
    (Madsen, Becker, Thomas, 1968), secondary
    classrooms (McAllister, Stachowiak, Baer,
    Conderman, 1969), and special education classes
    (Zimmerman Zimmerman, 1962) as well as improve
    their academic achievement (Hasazi Hasazi,
    1972).

65
Method (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)
  • Participants
  • 4 fourth graders with developmental disabilities
    who were enrolled in an urban public elementary
    school
  • Students were unproductive in their special
    education class during seat-work time, rarely
    asked for help, and performed below grade level
    in the general ed class they were mainstreamed in
  • Included for 45 to 90 minutes a day.
  • IEP goals specified increased socialization and
    participation.
  • 29 students in the general ed class and were
    observed during homeroom when all students
    completed independent academic work.

66
Settings (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)
  • Special ed classroom for training.
  • Students were taught individually with no other
    students present.
  • General ed classroom for data collection.
  • General ed students were expected to work quietly
    at their desks on assigned spelling sheets, walk
    up to the teachers desk if they had a question,
    wait in line if there was another student
    present, or raise their hand and wait to be
    recognized.

67
Dependent Variables (Craft, Alber, and Heward,
1998)
  • Student recruiting
  • Need all 3 steps in sequence
  • Walked up to desk/raised hand
  • Waited quietly for recognition
  • Voiced a statement/question for the teacher about
    their work

68
Dependent Variables (Craft, Alber, and Heward,
1998)
  • Teacher praise
  • Recorded each time teacher made a statement to 1
    of the 4 participants that expressed approval of
    their work.

"That looks great!"
"Great job"
"Everything is correct"
69
Dependent Variables (Craft, Alber, and Heward,
1998)
  • Completion of academic work.
  • Responsible for 10 spelling words. Tasks include
    alphabetizing, number of syllables, identifying
    vowels, unscrambling words, and finding in
    dictionary
  • Accuracy of academic work.
  • Answer keys provided
  • Percentage calculated correct x 100
  • total

70
Data Collection IOA (Craft, Alber, and Heward,
1998)
  • Data was collected by paper and pencil frequency
    count of student recruiting responses and teacher
    praise statement in the general ed classroom for
    20min per day, 4 days a week (Tues-Fri
    910-930a.m.)
  • IOA
  • 2 observers present for 12 of the 40 sessions and
    was calculated on an episode by episode basis.
  • Consistently about 88, highest 100 accurate.

71
Design Used (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)
  • A multiple baseline across students design was
    used to analyze the effects of recruitment
    productivity in the general ed classroom.

72
(Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)
  • Baseline
  • Students were observed in general ed homeroom for
    20min while working independently on their
    worksheets.
  • Training
  • Trained in special ed classroom for 2 consecutive
    days during part of homeroom.
  • Day 1- Instruction and role playing.
  • Day 2- Morning prompts and end of school day
    check and reward.
  • Generalization
  • Began with continuous reinforcement at the end of
    the day during check and reward if the student
    recruited at least twice a day.
  • Intermittent schedule of reinforcement
    implemented when recruiting occurred at least
    twice for 5 consecutive days.
  • Maintenance
  • Recruiting is now independent and reinforcement
    is natural praise only.

73
Results (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)
  • During baseline, no instances of teacher praise
    (recruited or no recruited) were recorded for any
    of the 4 students.
  • Student Recruiting
  • All 4 students recruited at the target frequency
    of 2 or 3 times per session for the majority of
    sessions during combined generalization
    programming and maintenance phases.
  • Teacher Praise
  • The four students recruiting responses were
    successful in producing teacher praise.

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Results (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)
  • Completion and Accuracy of Academic Work
  • All 4 students worksheet completion and accuracy
    were higher during combined generalization
    programming and maintenance phases than during
    baseline.

77
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78
Discussion
  • The results of this study support and extend the
    findings of previous research showing that
    students with developmental disabilities can be
    taught to recruit attention from teachers
    (Connell, Carta, Baer, 1993 Harchik et al.,
    1990 Hrydowy et al., 1983 Seymour Stokes,
    1976 Stokes et al., 1978).
  • After recruitment training, the worksheet
    completion and accuracy of all 4 students
    increased over baseline levels, providing a
    functional relationship between recruitment
    training and increased academic productivity.

79
End Thought
  • Training students with developmental disabilities
    as well as autism and other disabilities can be a
    relatively low-cost, low- effort strategy for
    increasing students contact with an important
    and powerful source of reinforcement in the
    classroom while providing them with inclusion
    time with typical peers.

80
Introduction
  • Article Keys to Play A Strategy to Increase the
    Social Interactions of Young Children with Autism
    and their Typically Developing Peers
  • Nelson, McDonnell, Johnston, Crompton, Nelson
    (2007) examined the effects of a visual
    intervention strategy on the play initiations of
    4 young children with autism in inclusive
    preschool classes.
  • The Keys to Play intervention package utilized an
    embedded instruction, class-wide, peer mediated
    teaching strategy to promote the use of a paper
    key shown to initiate play to students with
    autism in inclusive preschool classrooms.
  • Research questions
  • Does the Keys to Play intervention package
    increase the play initiations of children with
    autism?
  • Does it increase the time spent engaged in
    playgroups?
  • Does it affect the childs use of another
    communication strategy (speech, sign language, or
    manipulation of play materials) to enter
    playgroups?
  • How do staff and family rate the effectiveness of
    the Keys to Play package?

81
Intro cont.
  • Recent research suggests that the use of visual
    strategies for communication purposes promotes
    the use of oral language in children with autism
    (Bondy Frost, 1994 Schwarz, Garfinkle,
    Bauer, 1998).
  • Few empirical studies have examined effective
    strategies for teaching social skills to children
    with autism within routines of inclusive
    preschools.
  • Several studies have looked at effectiveness of
    peer mediated intervention, but few have looked
    at naturalistic or embedded strategies or the
    combination of the two for the use of children
    with autism in the preschool.
  • It is important to include young children with
    autism and other disabilities into regular ed
    classes because benefits occur when children are
    included with peers, socialize with them, and
    actively engage in typical preschool activities
    including play (Harris Handleman, 1997
    Kellegrew, 1995 Koegel, Koegel, Harrower,
    Carter, 1999 McGee, Morrimer, Daly, 2001
    McWilliam, Trivette, Dunst, 1985 Rogers, Hall,
    Osaki, Reaven, Herbison, 2001 Strain, 1983).

82
Method Nelson, McDonnell, Johnston, Crompton,
Nelson (2007)
  • Participants and Settings
  • 4 preschool children with autism
  • Appear to have an interest in the play of other
    children or activities.
  • Difficulty with social-communication initiations
    and responses.
  • Each attended different preschool programs (2
    Head Start classes, a community class, and an
    integrated special education class with typical
    peers).

83
Dependent Variables
  • Percentage of times child used Keys to Play to
    enter a play group.
  • Percentage of times a child used another strategy
    such as words, sign language and manipulated
    objects to enter a play group.
  • Amount of time spent engaged in playgroup
    activity.

84
Data Collection IOA
  • Personal digital assistant (PDA) based data
    collection system asked
  • Is there an opportunity?
  • Is there an opportunity for initiation or
    responding?
  • If there is an opportunity did the child
    initiate?
  • When child entered a playgroup, the data
    collector pushed an icon that activated the timer
    to record engagement time.
  • 90 of higher point-by-point agreement on all
    behavior categories during on-site observation of
    preschool program.

85
Design Used
  • Multiple baseline probe (Tawney Gast, 1984)
    design across children and settings.
  • Baseline phase and intervention phase
  • 2 children experienced maintenance phase before
    the year ended.

86
Procedure
  • What is Keys to Play?
  • Keys to Play is a 4-inch long gold laminated
    paper key worn around the neck or attached to the
    childs hip with Velcro and were used during
    learning center time.
  • Keys to Play were taught, prompted, and measured
    within the preschool classroom.
  • Baseline
  • Given Key but no instruction, training or
    prompting.
  • Classroom routines and procedures remained the
    same and were not altered.

87
Procedure cont.
  • Intervention
  • Typical peers were taught first to use Keys to
    Play within a group activity.
  • Prompted to show keys to target children and ask
    them to play.
  • Target children trained on use of response to the
    keys through incidental teaching, peer mediated
    intervention model (McGee, Morrimer, Daly,
    1999 Prizant, Wetherby, Rydell, 2000).
  • If child did not initiate play activity, the
    interventionist modeled use of key with verbal
    phrase I want to play, and used a full physical
    prompt to lead the child to the activity if there
    was no response.

88
Maintenance
  • Began when child reached stable 75 or higher
    with unprompted initiations.
  • Reinforced by teacher intermittently.
  • Data collected once a week for 4 weeks.

89
Results Discussion
  • During baseline initiation rates were low
  • Engaged time and verbal language in play groups
    for each student rose across teaching conditions
  • Correct initiations included verbal, gestural,
    positional, parallel play, Keys to Play, and Keys
    to Play paired with verbal language.
  • All children used Keys to Play alone or with
    verbal language during intervention condition.

90
Results Discussion cont.
  • Keys to Play package can increase play initiation
    of children with autism.
  • All children exhibited increases in initiations
    over the course of the study.
  • Demonstrating an interest in play of others and
    using the Keys to Play strategy or another
    strategy to enter playgroups varied across
    children.
  • Their interest also varied and was sometimes
    dependent on the activity.
  • Keys to Play can increase time engaged in play
  • All showed significant gains in time spent in
    playgroups as well as 2 children engaged in
    pretend play.

91
Results Discussion cont.
  • Keys to Play may promote use of verbal language
    for initiation purposes
  • Consistent with previous findings, visual
    supports may promote the use of verbal language
    in young children with autism (Bondy Frost,
    1994 Johnston, Nelson, Evans, Palazolo, 2003
    Schwartz et al. J, 1998).
  • A visual strategy for initiation purposes can
    provide a socially valid way to increase verbal
    and nonverbal play in children with autism.
  • Verbal initiations also expanded beyond practice
    phrases.
  • Parents commented that play initiations also
    occurred in settings outside of school.
  • Systematic replication is needed to verify if
    sites used in this study are representative of
    inclusive preschool programs.

92
End thought
  • Visual strategies should and can be taught to
    children with autism to allow successful
    inclusion in preschool (as well as general
    education) classes to provide socialization and
    engagement in typical preschool activities.

93
Research
  • Article
  • General Education Teachers Relationships with
    Included Students with Autism (Journal of Autism
    and Developmental Disorders)
  • Purpose
  • Robertson et. al,2003 examined the relationship
    between general education teachers and second-and
    third-grade included students with autism.
  • They also examined the effects of childrens
    behavior problems on these relationships, as well
    as inclusion within the social environment of the
    classroom.

94
ResearchRobertson et. al. 2003
  • Introduction The goal of the current study was
    to examine the relationship between general
    education teachers and high functioning children
    with autism included full time in general
    education classrooms (included children with
    autism).
  • In this study Robertson et al. examined
    teachers perceptions of their relationship with
    included children with autism, how this
    perception might be affected by the presence of
    paraprofessionals and behavior problems, and
    childrens level of social inclusion (measured by
    their peers).

95
Research Robertson et. al. 2003
  • Methods
  • Participants In all, 187 children from second
    and third grade inclusive classrooms from two
    urban middle class school districts participated
    in this tidy. Of the 187 children, 12 were
    students with autism (2 female)
  • Paraprofessionals accompanied half of these
    students
  • General Education teachers from all 12 classrooms
    participated
  • Additional participants included all the
    children with autisms classmates with parental
    permission.
  • The average class size was 19. No class had more
    than 21 students.
  • 3-4 children did not participatesocial inclusion
    measures had been described as robust using fewer
    than 50 of students in the classroom.
  • All students included in the study were also
    enrolled in their classroom for at least 6 months
    before data collection. The target child with
    autism was the only child with special needs in
    each class.

96
Research Robertson et. al. 2003
  • Procedures Procedures were identical for all
    subjects.
  • 1) The teacher was first interviewed about her
    teacher experiences including the number of years
    and grade levels taught, credentials, special ed.
    training, and access to special educators and/or
    in-services.
  • 2) Participating general education classroom
    teachers were asked to complete the
    Student-Teacher Relationship Scale (Pianta, 1992)
    in response to their relationship with the
    included child in their class.
  • 3) Teachers also filled out the SNAP-IV Rating
    Scale (Swanson,1995) to determine the behavioral
    characteristics of the included student with
    autism.
  • 4) Classmates were asked to complete a social
    inclusion measure to examine students
    perceptions of the social environment of their
    classroom.
  • 5) All participating children in the class,
    including the student with autism, completed a
    free-recall measure of social inclusion of their
    classroom.

97
ResearchRobertson et. al. 2003
  • Measures
  • Teacher Demographics
  • -General education teachers were interviewed and
    asked to complete a short questionnaire assessing
  • 1) Their teaching experience (number of years
    teaching, grade levels taught and degrees held)
  • 2) Their relationship with the included student
    in their class
  • 3) Their relationship with and view of the
    paraprofessional if applicable

98
Research Robertson et. al. 2003
  • Student-Teacher Relationship Scale
  • General education classroom teachers completed
    the 28-item Student-Teacher Relationship Scale
    (Pianta,1992) to assess teachers feelings about
    their relationship with a student, the students
    interactive behavior with the teacher, and the
    teachers beliefs about the students feelings
    toward the teacher.
  • The Snap-IV Rating Scale
  • The SNAP-IV (Swanson, 1995) consists of 41 items
    that measure behavioral symptomatology in
    children. This measure was selected to test for
    differences in the qualitative features given
    the presence of maladaptive behaviors. The
    ratings result in 3 subscale scores inattention,
    hyperactivity/impulsivity, and opposition/defiance
    .

99
Research Robertson et. al. 2003
  • Level of Inclusion in the Classroom Social
    Structures
  • -In examining inclusion in classroom social
    structures students were asked, Are there people
    in school who hang around a lot? Who are they?
    They were then asked to list the names of
    children who hand around together and circle
    lists of names to distinguish separate groupings.
    Within each classroom, childrens level of social
    involvement was measured by their affiliation
    with peers. Each time a child was listed as
    belonging to the same group of peers, they
    received a point. A scored of 0 was obtained in
    the child was not listed as belonging to any
    particular group of peers. A score of 1 if the
    child was listed 1-5 times as belonging to the
    group, A score of 2 if the schools was listed
    6-10 times, and score of 3 11-15 times.
  • CairnsCairns,1994 Gariepy, Kinderman, 1990)
  • (

100
Research Robertson et. al. 2003
  • Results Preliminary analyses were performed to
    examine gender, age, and grade level of students,
    as well as teacher characteristics. Results of
    these tests were nonsignificant. Data were
    collapsed across these variables for all
    subsequent analyses.
  • The results indicate considerable variability in
    teachers reports of their relationship with
    included students with autism, childrens level
    of behavior problems, degree of social inclusion,
    and the associations between these factors.

101
Results Robertson et. al. 2003
  • Teacher Demographics
  • General education teachers years of teaching
    experience ranged from 3-28 years. Across all
    classrooms, teachers had experience teacher
    multiple elementary grades. All teachers had
    completed a B.A about one half had an M.A. None
    had received formal training in special
    education. 83 had never had a student with
    autism in their class (50 had never taught a
    student with special needs)
  • Paraprofessionals
  • Differences in teachers ratings of closeness,
    conflict, and dependency of these relationships
    were compared for children with and without a
    paraprofessional. Regardless of the presence of
    the paraprofessionals, teachers reported similar
    levels of closeness, conflict, and dependency for
    students with and without a paraprofessional. No
    differences were found.

102
Results Robertson et. al. 2003
  • Student Teacher relationship- Childrens
    relationship with their general education
    teachers reflected wide individual differences.
  • Child Maladaptive Behaviors- Childrens level of
    behavioral symptomatology also reflected wide
    individual variation.
  • Child Maladaptive Behaviors/Teacher-Student
    relationships-These correlations indicate a
    moderate to high association between childrens
    behavioral problems and features of their student
    teacher relationships. Also, a moderate to high
    association between teachers perceptions of
    their relationships with included students with
    autism and their reports of behavioral
    symptomatology.

103
Research Apple et. al. 20005
  • The following is a review of the Effects of Video
    Modeling Alone and With Self-Management on
    Compliant-Giving Behaviors of Children with
    High-Functioning ASD, by Apple et. al. 20005,
    Journal of Positive Interventions, Winter, pp
    33-46.
  • Purpose The purpose of this experiment 1 was to
    assess the effectiveness of video modeling alone
    for teaching children compliment giving to
    children with high-functioning autism and
    Asperger syndrome.
  • Importance The importance of the first
    experiment was there is lack of research in
    studying video modeling alone (e.g. without
    prompts, reinforcement, etc.) DAteno et al.
    (2003) used a procedure of video modeling by
    itself and did not show generalization of play
    sequences or verbalizations.

104
Research Apple et. al. 20005
  • Methods
  • Participants and Setting included 2 boys
    diagnosed with autism. They were both 5 years
    old. The study took place at a half-day
    preschool for children with ASD. Sessions were
    conducted during free play. In each classroom
    there were 4 adults and 16 peers. There was a
    minimum of 6 typically developing children in
    each classroom. The sessions lasted for 30
    minutes during free play.
  • Questionnaires Prior to implementation of the
    study and after the study, parents and teachers
    were asked to answer questionnaires. They rated
    the participants social skills, peer
    relationships, and compliant giving behavior.
  • Compliment giving was defined as 3 sentence
    structures or types. 1. A compliment needed to
    include a positive describing word that did not
    need to mention, but could, a target item of
    possession or activity that was engaged in.
    Positive describing words, were adjectives that
    conveyed approval. (e.g. Cool. Nice shirt.)
    2. Included I like with the inclusion of the
    item of possession or with the activity of
    engagement. (e.g. I like your ball.) If a child
    uttered an approval statement that did not fit
    into the 3 structures, all raters had to agree
    that it was an approval statement to be included
    as correct.

105
Research Apple et. al. 20005
  • Data collection During 30 minute sessions, 15
    minutes was used to record frequency data on
    initiations and 15 min. of free playtime was used
    to collect data of frequency of responses.
  • Experimental design The design used was a
    multiple baseline across participant design.

106
Research Apple et. al. 20005
  • Procedures
  • Baseline During the baseline phase children were
    observed for 15 min. of free play. Classroom
    peers were during this time provided
    opportunities for participants to engage in
    compliment giving behavior, by pointing to items
    and saying Look.. This created antecedent
    events to evoke desired responses. A peer
    initiation could not occur more than once in a
    2-minute period. If a compliment were give during
    baseline teachers would provide verbal praise.
  • Video Modeling 3 times per week, participants
    were brought to another classroom during free
    play to watch a video. There were 3 videos that
    were rotated randomly. After viewing video
    children returned to free play and data were
    collected for 15 min. following the intervention.
  • Video Modeling and reinforcement phase No
    initiation type compliments were observed during
    the video modeling alone condition so
    reinforcement was included. The procedure was the
    same as in the original video phase with an
    additional step. Before going back to free play,
    the teacher provided verbal behavioral contract
    stating child had to give 4 compliments during
    free play to obtain special prize. 2 peers were
    selected to approach participant, to provide
    opportunities for compliment giving behavior. The
    teacher kept track of compliments and stated
    comments such as thats 2 so far.
  • Reinforcement phase Was the same as the video
    and reinforcement phase except the video was
    removed.
  • Withdrawal of tangible reinforcement
    Participants were brought back to baseline
    condition.
  • Interobserver agreement IOA was conducted for
    33 of all sessions. IOA was 100.

107
Research Apple et. al. 20005
  • Results In the video modeling alone condition
    children did respond to peers with approval
    statements but did not make any initiating
    compliments. Reinforcement was added and an
    increase in initiated compliments was observed.
    When the reinforcement was in the withdrawal
    phase children continued to engage in compliment
    behavior but only the response type. This
    demonstrates that the reinforcement was
    controlling the participants initiating
    behavior. The participants continued to engage in
    response compliments after video was removed. The
    authors suggest that this demonstrates that
    reinforcement is not necessary for teaching these
    types of compliments.
  • Implications These findings support previous
    research that video modeling is an effective
    teaching strategy to teach learners with autism
    social skills. The addition of rules in video
    modeling procedure may have contributed to
    desired behavior change. Additional
    reinforcement procedures were necessary to teach
    children to initiate compliment behavior. The
    procedures used in this experiment did not
    promote independence. The child relied on the
    teacher to track frequency of compliment
    behaviors. It is possible that the teachers were
    a discriminative stimulus for evoking compliment
    behaviors.

108
Research Apple et. al. 20005
  • Experiment 2
  • Purpose The purpose of experiment 2 was to teach
    children with autism to engage in compliment
    initiations in the absence of supervision.
  • Importance It is important that children engage
    in compliment behaviors independently. These
    behaviors help to demonstrate social reciprocity
    with peers. (Attwood,1998) Direct adult
    monitoring may not always available and may be
    not always be welcomed with typically developing
    peers.

109
Research Apple et. al. 20005
  • Method
  • Participants and Setting 1 child from experiment
    1 was included. (Roger) 2 other students
    diagnosed with autism also participated in the
    study. There age range was between 4-5 years old.
    Two learners had prior diagnosis of autism. One
    participant was diagnosed with Asperger syndrome.
    The study was conducted at the half-day preschool
    for children with autism. They were conducted in
    both the integrated preschool classroom and the
    kindergarten classroom.
  • Materials The same materials were used as in
    experiment 1.
  • Procedures The 2 additionally added participants
    were put into a baseline and video modeling
    phase, exactly as demonstrated in experiment1.
  • Self-Management Teaching phase In this
    condition there were 2 steps. First, children
    viewed video model. Next, teacher showed
    participants their self-management device. (e.g.
    wrist counter or check list) Next, the teacher
    prompted child to attend to the number 2 taped
    onto the learners self-management device. The
    teacher then provided the verbal statement. When
    I make 2 compliments, I get a prize. The
    teacher then provided 2 compliments at prompted
    child to number 2 on their device and took a
    prize out of a small bag. Childrens prizes were
    put into paper bags with their names on it. A
    preference assessment was conducted to identify
    prizes as reinforcement. Child was shown there
    prize bag and the SD its your turn to make a
    compliment. Was provided. Learners had 3 s to
    engage in compliment behavior. If the child did
    not make a compliment or responded incorrectly
    then the teacher provided a model. If child did
    not record compliment on self management device
    in 3 s teacher provided prompt. The procedure was
    repeated for 15 min. each day until the
    participant engaged in the sequence
    independently. Next, child moved to classroom.
    The child had 2 min. to initiate a compliment in
    this phase. 10 s after two min. interval teacher
    provided model. The process continued every 2
    min., until criterion was met, which was 2
    consecutive sessions, to give peers 2
    compliments.

110
Cont.
  • Self-Management phase In this phase no verbal
    models were provided. All prompts were faded to a
    prompt 2 level. Another type of prompt was
    provided at 4 min. interval if child did not
    engage in compliment initiation. No prompts
    preceded that interval.
  • Generalization Only 2 participants were used for
    assessing generalization due to availability.
    This occurred 2 days per week when
    self-management procedure was not in place during
    different times of the day. Settings included
    outside free play ( instead of inside free play)
    and during group activities in the kindergarten
    class. The video model was not viewed in this
    phase. However, peers did approach participants
    to provide opportunities for compliment
    initiations.
  • Interobserver agreement IOA was conducted for
    50 to 54 of childrens sessions. IOA was 100.

111
ResearchApple et. al. 20005
  • Results The 2 new participants demonstrated that
    the video modeling procedure was effective in
    increasing compliment responses. In the
    self-management phase all three participants met
    criterion in classroom on the first session. The
    compliment-initiations were generalized in probe
    conditions. However, due to self-management
    training on alternate days, it is unclear of what
    was responsible for generalization of the desired
    behavior. (video model or self-management
    strategy) Post test surveys demonstrated that
    parents observed improvements in compliment
    behaviors with participants.
  • Implications These findings support previous
    research that video modeling is an effective
    teaching strategy to teach learners with autism
    social skills. This study included multiple
    exemplars of video models, which may have
    promoted for generalization. (Stokes Baer,1977)
    Experiment 2 was more effective because it taught
    learners to engage in initiated compliment
    without supervision of adult but rather with a
    self monitoring procedure. The authors suggest
    that self-management procedures increased the
    participants independent social initiations. The
    social validity measures suggest that there was
    generalization of initiated compliment behavior
    without self-management devices. Teacher ratings
    resulted in a 1 point increases of social skills
    for 3 of the 4 participants for both experiments.
    Parental surveys and teacher reports suggest that
    compliment behaviors were generalizing across
    settings without self management devices.
  •  

112
The Use of an Antecedent-Based
Intervention to Decrease Stereotypic Behavior in
a General Education Classroom
  • Maureen A. Conroy, Jennifer M. Asmus, Jennifer A.
  • Sellers, Crystal N. Ladwig
  • 2005
  • Focus on Autism and Other Developmental
    Disabilities
  • 20, 223-230

113
Purpose(Conroy, Asmus, Sellers, Ladwig, 2005)
  • The purpose of the study was to develop effective
    interventions for children with autism, in the
    general education settings. Additionally, to
    examine the use of an antecedent based
    intervention in a general education setting to
    decrease ster
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