Inclusion & General Education

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Inclusion General Education

• Kristie, Kim, Sharyn,
• Lauren, and Helene

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Outline

• Education Requirements
• What is Inclusion?
• What should be taught?
• How should staff teach?
• How should staff be trained?
• What is supported inclusion?
• Why consider supported inclusion?
• Will a child benefit from inclusion placement?
• How do you identify potential inclusion sites?
• What can be taught in inclusion setting?
• How should staff teach in inclusion setting?
• Recommended strategies for support staff
• How to know if child is learning in inclusion
  setting?
• It is working?
• Research

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Educational Requirements(Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• Few teachers and specialists have been
  specifically trained to work with children with
  autism.
• Undergraduate programs focus on frequent, milder
  disabilities
• Students with autism can achieve reasonable
  progress if special/detailed attention is given
  to their education
• In Delaware -there is a certification for
  teachers of children with autism/ severely
  handicapped students

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Delaware Requirements (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• Educational requirements
• (3 core courses covering-
• Topics of assessment
• Curriculum design
• Teaching procedures
• Behavior management
• Functional communication training

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Delaware Requirements (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• 2 elective courses
• Advanced behavior analysis
• Augmentative communication system
• Pre-school programming
• Transitional programming
• Vocational programming

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Delaware Requirements (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• Additionally, specialists (speech, psychology)
  are required to have their Masters degree in
  their area of specialty and have coursework in
  Applied Behavior Analysis.

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(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• The federal law states that all children are
  entitled to a free and appropriate education.
• The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
  (IDEA) includes a mandate that all services
  should be provided in the least restrictive
  environment.

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(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• The term least restrictive environment implies
  that a range of educational options must be
  available, and placement decisions must be based
  on each students individual needs.
• The phrase phrase full inclusion is not part of
  the federal mandate.

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What is Inclusion? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• Inclusion is a term which expresses commitment to
  educate each child, to the maximum extent
  appropriate, in the school and classroom he or
  she would otherwise attend.
• It involves bringing the support services to the
  child (rather than moving the child to the
  services) and requires only that the child will
  benefit from being in the class (rather than
  having to keep up with the other students)

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What is Full Inclusion? (Maurice, Green,
Luce, 1996)

• The term full inclusion has come to be associated
  with the idea that all students with special
  needs must be placed with other peers their age
  full time.
• Services must be provided within the regular
  classroom setting.

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What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• Two common deficits found in young children with
  autism are
• 1) Interacting and communicating with other
  people
• 2) Inappropriate behaviors ,including tantrums,
  aggression, self-injury, and other behaviors that
  draw unwanted social attention
• The first duty is to decide what functional
  skills should be taught to preschoolers that they
  will find immediately useful in their lives at
  school and at home.

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What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• One way to identify functional skills is to
  review the places, people, and expectations that
  a child encounters throughout the day.
• These domains can be categorized as follows
• Domestic Skills (i.e. skills associated with
  eating, dressing, cleaning oneself the
  environment)
• School-Based Activities(i.e. staying with a
  group, staying seated at the table ,following
  directions, transitioning between activities and
  locations, possible academic activities, group
  and individual play routines, etc.)
• Community Skills(i.e. going shopping for
  groceries, eating in fast-food and sit-down
  restaurants, walking in the neighborhood or the
  mall, riding in the car, etc.)

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What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• Some skills may occur only in specific locations
  (e.g. home vs. school), other skills apply across
  domains and settings
• Communication Skills (e.g. expressing
  significant choices and needs, calmly rejecting
  or saying No, asking for help, responding to
  simple instructions , imitating sounds, words,
  songs, etc.)
• Social interaction skills (e.g. imitating the
  actions of adults and peers, responding to
  greetings, initiating greetings, maintaining
  social approaches from adults and peers,
  initiating social approaches to adults and peers
  etc.)
• Alternatives to inappropriate behaviors (e.g.
  learning to wait, asking for help, learning to
  play with a toy instead of fingers, etc.)

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What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• Two broad skill areas are reviewed when thinking
  about communication
• 1)Using language expressively
• 2)Understanding what is said
• For children with autism, they often must be
  taught independently.
• Before they can acquire speech functionally they
  must learn a number of skills (e.g. imitating
  sounds and words)

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What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• It may be useful for the parents to teach the
  children alternative means of communication until
  (or while) functional vocal speech is acquired.
• One system that has been used successfully to
  enable children with autism to communicate with
  pictures and symbols is the Picture Exchange
  Communication System (PECS Bondy Frost, 1994b).

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What should be taught?(Green,1996)

• Lastly, when aiming to reduce or eliminate
  problem behaviors, we must know what we would
  like the child to do instead.
• Is it equally important to decide what the child
  should be doing.
• It must make sense for the childs
  perspective..not just to please us (e.g. if a boy
  screams to get attention we must teach him
  another way to get attention)

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What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• When considering priority objectives for
  communication skills development, parents need to
  understand the different functions served by
  certain key communication responses.
• Requesting is learned and maintained because it
  helps the child get desired items (e.g. snacks,
  drinks, favorite toys, etc.)
• Spontaneous communication is learned and
  maintained because it gains the attention of
  other people (e.g. when a child says, Look at
  the bird!.
• Parents should know which types of communication
  skills the parents are teaching and should stress
  the importance of teaching spontaneous
  communication early on.

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What should be taught? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• It is important for the parents to work with
  staff to develop IEPs for their children which
  will address these skills.

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How Should Staff Teach? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• Parent involvement
• Measurement
• Objectives
• Response definitions
• Settings
• Time of day
• Prompts
• Reinforcers
• Error correction
• Generalization
• Problematic behavior
• Goals should be useful inside and outside of the
  classroom
• Parent training

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Staff Training (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• Commitment to on going staff training throughout
  the school year
• Core training for all professionals and
  paraprofessionals
• Staff manual - detailed, specific to program,
  based on principles of ABA

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Staff Training (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• Staff members are observed and must show
  competence in specific strategies
• Active mentoring program
• New staff designated a mentor

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What is Supported Inclusion? (Maurice, Green,
Luce, 1996)

• Supported inclusion is defined as the act of
  sending a student with autism or Pervasive
  Development Disorders (PDD) into a regular
  education accompanied by an aide or instructor
  trained in the principles of Applied Behavior
  Analysis (ABA).

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Why Consider Supported Inclusion? (Maurice,
Green, Luce, 1996)

• The decision to try supported inclusion should
  include parents, regular education personnel,
  behavioral/educational consultants, and school
  administration.

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Why Consider Supported Inclusion? (Maurice,
Green, Luce, 1996)

                      
 
                      
 

• Careful consideration of the following objectives
  should be accomplished
• 1). To generalize social skills learned in a
  structured, one-to one teaching to a setting with
  typically- developing, aged- matched peers.
• 2). To learn new social skills.

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Why Consider Supported Inclusion? (Maurice,
Green, Luce, 1996)

• 3). To generalize academic skills learned in a
  structured (one-to-one) teaching situation to a
  group instruction setting with typically
  developing, aged-matched peers.
• 4). To learn new academic skills.

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Why Consider Supported Inclusion? (Maurice,
Green, Luce, 1996)

• 5). To gradually and systematically increase the
  students time in the regular education setting
  in preparation for a full transition.
• The time should be increased contingent on the
  childs achievement of target objectives, and
  support personnel are gradually faded until the
  childs included for the full school day.

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Will your child Benefit from an inclusion
placement? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• As your child begins to generalize skills, you
  may want to consider if placement in a setting
  with typically developing peers would be helpful.
• The child should demonstrate the prerequisite
  skills with proficiency not only in the
  specialized education setting but in various
  other situations with other people before
  inclusion placement begins.

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Will your child Benefit from an inclusion
placement? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• The prerequisite skills follow
• 1.Language Skills
• A. Follow two-step directions when presented to a
  group
• B. Communicate needs and desires
• C. Answer simple questions
• D. Ask simple questions
• E. Engages in simple exchanges of conversation
• F. Recalls experiences

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Will your child Benefit from an inclusion
placement? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• Some questions to ask should be
• What is a functional level of performance?
• How accurate and consistent does the performance
  have to be to produce positive outcomes for the
  child in various natural situations?
• What level of performance is expected of typical
  children of the same age?
• What is expected of most children in the
  inclusion setting you are considering?

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Will your child Benefit from an inclusion
placement? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• A range of performance on academic tasks is
  considered acceptable for any group of first
  grade children perfect scores on every test is
  not a realistic criterion for most typical
  children, nor would it be for a child with
  autism.
• Most teachers in typical classrooms have high
  standards for all children in certain areas (e.g.
  independent toileting, remaining quiet when the
  teacher is talking, and refraining for disruptive
  behaviors)
• Generally, high accuracy and consistency criteria
  should be set for the acquisition and
  generalization of high priority skills (e.g. 90
  accuracy for 3 consecutive sessions, with 3
  different adults or children in 3 different
  settings).

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Will your child Benefit from an inclusion
placement? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• The prerequisite skills follow
• 1.Language Skills
• A. Follow two-step directions when presented to a
  group
• B. Communicate needs and desires
• C. Answer simple questions
• D. Ask simple questions
• E. Engages in simple exchanges of conversation
• F. Recalls experiences

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Prerequisite skills. (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• 2. Social Skills
• A. Takes turns during activities
• B. Walks quietly
• C. Answers simple questions
• D. Participate in circle activities
• E. Initiates play activities with peers with or
  without adult prompts
• F. Imitates peer play

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Prerequisite skills. (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• 3. Academic Skills
• A. Learns through observation of others
• B. Waits quietly
• C. Raises hand to seek adult assistance
• D. Learns targeted objectives during group
  instruction
• E. Completes grade-level academic curriculum

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Prerequisite skills. (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• 4. Behavior Skills
• A. Responds to delayed contingencies(reinforcement
  is delivered to child following a period of time
  rather than immediately after the targeted
  behavior e.g., the mother contracts with her
  child for ice cream after preschool if the child
  follows directions. The reinforcer is provided
  after school so as not to draw extra attention to
  the child during school.)
• B. Exhibits disruptive behaviors at near-zero
  levels in all environments
• C. Stereotypic behavior under stimulus control
  that is, the child engages in stereotypic
  behavior, if at all, only under certain stimulus
  conditions (e.g. alone during playtime at home)
  and not under other conditions (e.g. in public
  places like the classroom).

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How do you identify potential inclusion sites?
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• Community settings
• Preschools
• Kindergarten and primary classes
• Team review of potential site
• Inclusion coordinator and/or parent, observe each
  class for 1 hour
• Other considerations
• Age
• Distance from home or specialized school
• Teacher characteristics
• Classroom schedule
• Class size

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What can be taught in
an inclusion setting?? (Maurice, Green, Luce,
1996)

• Choose specific objectives for inclusion
• Consider students strengths and weaknesses
• What is the students purpose for being in
  inclusion (e.g. socialization)?

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How Do You Teach Students in the Inclusion
Setting? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• Support staff who work directly with students in
  inclusion settings must be trained in ABA. They
  must be competent in data collection, time delay,
  prompt fading, and positive reinforcement
  procedures.

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Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)
                      
 

• 1). Shadow student and systematically fade back
  as soon as possible. Shadow means to sit or stand
  directly behind the student to provide prompting
  and reinforcement as necessary.
• The physical present of the support staff may to
  severe to control the students behavior.
  Systematically fading back shifts that control to
  the teacher, activity, or setting.

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Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• 2). Support a student under the following
  circumstances
• A. To Stop the student from engaging in
  inappropriate behavior such as stereotypy
• B. To prompt the student to follow a teachers
  verbal instruction within 15 seconds
• C. To prompt the student to begin independent
  seat work within 15 seconds after an instruction.
  
• D. To prompt the student to respond verbally to a
  peers social interaction
• E. To prompt the student to sit appropriately

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Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• 3). Students are to follow the classroom
  teachers instructions. If a student does not
  follow the instruction, provide a gestural or
  physical prompt. The teachers instructions
  should never be repeated by the support staff.
• 4). Provide support or prompt only after 15
  seconds elapse after the classroom teacher gives
  a direction

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Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• 5). Give subtle physical prompt from behind to
  get the student of function independently. Fade
  prompts as rapidly as possible.
• 6). Provide intermittent verbal and social
  reinforcement when appropriate. Thin
  reinforcement as rapidly as possible.
• 7). If a student asks a question or makes a
  statement to the support staff, redirect him to
  address the classroom teacher.

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Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• 8). Foster social interaction as often as
  possible.
• 9). If a skill has been targeted for instruction,
  follow the written teaching procedure.
• 10.) Summarize data on target skills daily on
  graphs.

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Recommended Strategies for Support Staff
(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• Prompts or support are typically provided a brief
  time delay because it is hoped that the student
  will begin to follow the naturally occurring
  prompts in the inclusion setting.
• The support staff should wait 15 seconds and
  observe to see if the students responds.
• Sometimes the day needs to be reduced due to the
  rapid pace in the class.

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Problems (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• If inappropriate behaviors occur
• (e.g. tantrums, vocalizations) the teacher should
  review the program to see if this is an
  appropriate placement.
• The students placement should be suspended until
  the behaviors are appropriate.
• The student should be placed back into the
• inclusion setting as soon as possible.

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How Do You Know If Your Child Is Learning In The
Inclusion Site? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• Once specific objectives are chosen for your
  child, procedures for measuring performance on
  each objective should be selected.
• The appropriate measure depends on the nature of
  the skill and the conditions under which it is to
  be demonstrated by the child.
• You should become familiar with standard direct
  behavioral measures such as frequency, per
  trial, or per opportunity, duration, latency,
  and others (Cooper, Heron, Heward,1987).

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How Do You Know If Your Child Is Learning In The
Inclusion Site? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• Collect baseline data on all programs prior to
  starting a teaching intervention
• Baseline data indicate the level of a behavior
  prior to any intervention and are important in
  planning for effective intervention.
• Setting appropriate criteria is often difficult
  when dealing with a teaching environment that
  changes from day to day as in most regular
  classrooms.
• It is also important to record data on the
  performances of a variety of peers on the same
  skills as those targeted for the student with
  autism.
• Two or three days of data should be collected
  each month on the peers to assess changes in
  behavior due to maturation or other variables not
  related to the specific intervention applied to
  your child.

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(Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• Data on targeted objectives should be reviewed
  weekly to monitor progress toward goals. When
  data are summarized and graphed, you can visually
  assess the progress.
• If you are recording data on a behavior to be
  reduced, such as stereotypy, the graph should
  show a decreasing trend.
• In regard to academic skills, identify with the
  teacher any opportunities she uses to evaluate
  performance for all students (e.g. weekly
  spelling tests, worksheets, mazes).
• This measurement procedure is referred to as
  permanent product, in that a final product is
  produced from which you can assess progress.

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Is it working? (Maurice, Green, Luce, 1996)

• Objective data must be collected to assess a
  learners progress in the inclusion site.
• What are the indications that the student is
  successful in the inclusion site?
• Independent functioning the student is
  performing most of the time independently. This
  validates that the teaching procedures are
  successful.
• Mastery of objectives
• Student is passing classroom tests. If learner is
  passing the same tests as typically developing
  peers, then the child is learning and the
  teaching is successful.
• Questionnaire Have teachers fill out a
  questionnaire. The questionnaire should consist
  of questions that assess the students behaviors
  of following the class room routine, on-task
  behavior, independent completion of assignments,
  is the learner functioning successfully in the
  setting.
• Increasing inclusion time
• When it is not working
• Problematic behavior

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Research

• Article
• A Participatory Action Research Approach to
  Evaluating Inclusive School Programs
• Purpose
• Dymond (2001) reviewed the literature on
  inclusive school program evaluations and proposes
  a model for evaluating inclusive schools.
• Key elements of the model are that it 1).
  includes stakeholders in the evaluation process
  though a participatory action research approach,
  2). analyzes both program processes and outcomes,
  3) uses multiple methods and measures, 4) and
  obtains perceptions from diverse stakeholder
  groups.

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(Dymond, 2001)

• Importance of Review
• Efforts to evaluate inclusion have focused on the
  efficacy of inclusive education as a service
  delivery model.
• A need exists for a comprehensive process to
  assist the schools that embrace inclusions to
  evaluate their programs.
• Most evaluations have focused on the efficacy of
  inclusive education opposed to the efficacy of an
  inclusive school program.

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(Dymond, 2001)
Research of Evaluations of Inclusive Education Research of Evaluations of Inclusive School Programs
Assesses specific components of inclusion, such as cooperative learning in an inclusion class. The intent is to obtain data that will determine the effectiveness of a particular inclusion practice or element of inclusive education. Determine the efficacy of the entire program according to the program's definition of inclusion. The evaluation is limited to the school, district, building, or class where inclusions is implemented. The goal of the evaluation is not to determine the effectiveness of inclusive education rather is to determine, as it is designed and implemented is effective. Few evaluations of inclusive school programs have been conducted.
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(Dymond, 2001)

• Description of Existing Program Evaluations
• Rossman and Salzma (1995) have proposed a
  classification system for organizing and
  comparing evaluations of inclusive inclusion
  programs.
• They suggest that evaluations be described
  according to their program features (purpose,
  complexity, scope, target population, and
  duration, and features of the evaluation (design
  methods, instrumentation, and sample).
• The classification system was adaptive for this
  study to describe the significant features of 20
  program evaluations.

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(Dymond, 2001)

• Scope of Evaluations
• Evaluations of inclusive school programs have
  been completed at the district or building level.
  
• Of the 20 evaluations reviewed, 1 evaluated an
  inclusion class, 7 were completed at the building
  level, 10 focused on programs across a school
  district, and 2 targeted multiple districts.

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(Dymond, 2001)
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(Dymond, 2001)
Results
Outcomes Targeted for Evaluation Process Targeted for Evaluating Comprehensiveness of Measurement Attention to Multiple Perspectives Stakeholder Involvement in the Evaluation
Each of the program measured one or more outcome areas Most targeted academic performance, behavior, and stakeholder satisfaction Social relationships were evaluated more often in programs that focused on student with severe disabilities It was difficult to determine the exact types of processes were evaluated Many of the studies conducted global evaluations Only 6 studies evaluated both the design and implementation Majority focused on programs from 1 disability The Comprehensiveness of methods used to measure programs remains unclear due to lack of definitions Evaluations that limited their scope to 1 or 2 outcome areas used multiple measures to gather data Evaluations that broadly measured multiple outcomes areas employed singular measures in each area Most of the evaluations incorporated, not many obtained data Across evaluation Stakeholders included general and special educators, principals, special education administers, parents of children with/ without disabilities, and students with/without disabilities The concept of participatory research is not readily evident in published evaluations of inclusive programs Most of the research is deigned and implemented by university personnel, or selected school administration
56
(Dymond, 2001)

• Models for Conducting Inclusive School Programs
• Relatively little information is available in the
  literature to suggest appropriate procedures and
  guidelines for evaluating inclusive school
  programs.
• The only model that was clearly articulated and
  employed in an evaluation was presented by Fox
  and Ysseldyke (1977).
• They used Stakes (1967) model (a naturalistic
  and participant-oriented approach) to analyze the
  antecedents, transactions, and outcomes of an
  inclusion program.

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(Dymond, 2001)
Reconceptualizing Program Evaluation for Inclusive Schools A model was developed and piloted in a elementary school that served students with both mild and severe disabilities and was Conducted from 1998-2000 Reconceptualizing Program Evaluation for Inclusive Schools A model was developed and piloted in a elementary school that served students with both mild and severe disabilities and was Conducted from 1998-2000 Reconceptualizing Program Evaluation for Inclusive Schools A model was developed and piloted in a elementary school that served students with both mild and severe disabilities and was Conducted from 1998-2000 Reconceptualizing Program Evaluation for Inclusive Schools A model was developed and piloted in a elementary school that served students with both mild and severe disabilities and was Conducted from 1998-2000
Involvement of Key Stakeholder Measurement of Processes and Outcomes Use of Multiple Methods and Measures Attention to Diverse Stakeholder Perspective
The steering committee consisted of 1 building administrator, 2 special education teachers, 1 paraprofessional, 1 parent of child with/without disabilities They define the process and outcome indicators for evaluation, determined appropriate methods for measuring their presence at school, generated item for inclusion questionnaires, reviewed draft instrumentation, and assisted with data collection 7 process and 5 outcome areas were targeted Initial definitions constructed by the steering committee were revised during the evaluation process as the committee made ongoing decisions about their priorities for information The steering committee reviewed measurement strategies identified in eh literature and selected methods that would be effective and efficient Processes and outcome were measured through interviews, focus groups, observations, documents and records, and questionnaires The research design was developed thorough a combination of quantitative and qualitative methodologies Stakeholders groups represented in this evaluation included building administrator, general educators, teachers, special education teachers, related services, paraprofessional parent of child with/without disabilities, students with/without disabilities These groups were identified by the steering committee as being the key stakeholder groups at school
58
(Dymond, 2001)
59
(Dymond, 2001)
60
(Dymond, 2001)
Lessons Learned Lessons Learned Lessons Learned Lessons Learned
Involvement of Key Stakeholder Measurement of Processes and Outcomes Use of Multiple Methods and Measures Attention to Diverse Stakeholder Perspective
Scheduling steering committee meetings at a time when everyone could attend was impossible Change in composition 3 of the members were no longer affiliated with the school Indicators that were important to one stakeholder group were of limited to another Most of the items developed for the questionnaire were unusable because they asked double-barreled Empirical Data obtained from observations, documents, and records were limited In some instances stakeholders did not agree with empirical sources of data. Perceptions of school personnel regarding outcomes were inconsistent with report cards. In One of the dangerous in relying on stakeholder perceptions is that they are in fact personnel impressions and may not correlate with other measures.
61
(Dymond, 2001)

• The Necessity of Program Evaluations
• Should be driven by the stakeholders and their
  needs of information
• It is imperative that evaluations reflect the
  manner in which school defines and implements
  inclusion.
• By assessing processes and outcomes, employing
  multiple methods and measures, and gathering
  diverse stakeholders perspectives, and involving
  stakeholders in the design and implementation of
  the study, investigators can provide a schools
  stakeholders with meaningful information that may
  lead to the development of inclusive education
  practices.

62
Introduction

• Article Teaching elementary students with
  developmental disabilities to recruit teacher
  attention in a general education classroom
  effects of teacher praise and academic
  productivity
• Craft, Alber, and Heward ( 1998) conducted a
  study to see if students with developmental
  disabilities could be taught to recruit teacher
  attention in a general education classroom by
  measuring the effects of recruiting on academic
  productivity and accuracy.
• Students were taught when, how, and how often to
  recruit teacher attention.
• Previous studies found increased recruiting and
  teacher praise (Hrydowy et. al., 1984 Morgan et
  al, 1983), but no data on recruiting for academic
  tasks.
• Academic productivity is essential in the
  classroom because the ultimate purpose of
  training students to recruit teacher praise is to
  maintain and extend the targeted academic or
  social skill for what they are recruiting praise
  for.

63
(Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)

• Research questions asked
• What are the effects of training elementary
  students with developmental disabilities to
  recruit teacher attention in the special
  education classroom on the following
• 1. Frequency of regular education students
  recruiting responses in the general ed class
• 2. Frequency of teacher praise received by
  students in the regular ed class
• 3. The students academic productivity and
  accuracy while completion of spelling worksheets
  in the general ed class

64
Some findings (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)

• Contingent teacher praise and attention produces
  reliable and significant improvements in
  childrens behavior in elementary classrooms
  (Madsen, Becker, Thomas, 1968), secondary
  classrooms (McAllister, Stachowiak, Baer,
  Conderman, 1969), and special education classes
  (Zimmerman Zimmerman, 1962) as well as improve
  their academic achievement (Hasazi Hasazi,
  1972).

65
Method (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)

• Participants
• 4 fourth graders with developmental disabilities
  who were enrolled in an urban public elementary
  school
• Students were unproductive in their special
  education class during seat-work time, rarely
  asked for help, and performed below grade level
  in the general ed class they were mainstreamed in
• Included for 45 to 90 minutes a day.
• IEP goals specified increased socialization and
  participation.
• 29 students in the general ed class and were
  observed during homeroom when all students
  completed independent academic work.

66
Settings (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)

• Special ed classroom for training.
• Students were taught individually with no other
  students present.
• General ed classroom for data collection.
• General ed students were expected to work quietly
  at their desks on assigned spelling sheets, walk
  up to the teachers desk if they had a question,
  wait in line if there was another student
  present, or raise their hand and wait to be
  recognized.

67
Dependent Variables (Craft, Alber, and Heward,
1998)

• Student recruiting
• Need all 3 steps in sequence
• Walked up to desk/raised hand
• Waited quietly for recognition
• Voiced a statement/question for the teacher about
  their work

68
Dependent Variables (Craft, Alber, and Heward,
1998)

• Teacher praise
• Recorded each time teacher made a statement to 1
  of the 4 participants that expressed approval of
  their work.

"That looks great!"
"Great job"
"Everything is correct"
69
Dependent Variables (Craft, Alber, and Heward,
1998)

• Completion of academic work.
• Responsible for 10 spelling words. Tasks include
  alphabetizing, number of syllables, identifying
  vowels, unscrambling words, and finding in
  dictionary
• Accuracy of academic work.
• Answer keys provided
• Percentage calculated correct x 100
• total

70
Data Collection IOA (Craft, Alber, and Heward,
1998)

• Data was collected by paper and pencil frequency
  count of student recruiting responses and teacher
  praise statement in the general ed classroom for
  20min per day, 4 days a week (Tues-Fri
  910-930a.m.)
• IOA
• 2 observers present for 12 of the 40 sessions and
  was calculated on an episode by episode basis.
• Consistently about 88, highest 100 accurate.

71
Design Used (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)

• A multiple baseline across students design was
  used to analyze the effects of recruitment
  productivity in the general ed classroom.

72
(Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)

• Baseline
• Students were observed in general ed homeroom for
  20min while working independently on their
  worksheets.
• Training
• Trained in special ed classroom for 2 consecutive
  days during part of homeroom.
• Day 1- Instruction and role playing.
• Day 2- Morning prompts and end of school day
  check and reward.
• Generalization
• Began with continuous reinforcement at the end of
  the day during check and reward if the student
  recruited at least twice a day.
• Intermittent schedule of reinforcement
  implemented when recruiting occurred at least
  twice for 5 consecutive days.
• Maintenance
• Recruiting is now independent and reinforcement
  is natural praise only.

73
Results (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)

• During baseline, no instances of teacher praise
  (recruited or no recruited) were recorded for any
  of the 4 students.
• Student Recruiting
• All 4 students recruited at the target frequency
  of 2 or 3 times per session for the majority of
  sessions during combined generalization
  programming and maintenance phases.
• Teacher Praise
• The four students recruiting responses were
  successful in producing teacher praise.

74
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76
Results (Craft, Alber, and Heward, 1998)

• Completion and Accuracy of Academic Work
• All 4 students worksheet completion and accuracy
  were higher during combined generalization
  programming and maintenance phases than during
  baseline.

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78
Discussion

• The results of this study support and extend the
  findings of previous research showing that
  students with developmental disabilities can be
  taught to recruit attention from teachers
  (Connell, Carta, Baer, 1993 Harchik et al.,
  1990 Hrydowy et al., 1983 Seymour Stokes,
  1976 Stokes et al., 1978).
• After recruitment training, the worksheet
  completion and accuracy of all 4 students
  increased over baseline levels, providing a
  functional relationship between recruitment
  training and increased academic productivity.

79
End Thought

• Training students with developmental disabilities
  as well as autism and other disabilities can be a
  relatively low-cost, low- effort strategy for
  increasing students contact with an important
  and powerful source of reinforcement in the
  classroom while providing them with inclusion
  time with typical peers.

80
Introduction

• Article Keys to Play A Strategy to Increase the
  Social Interactions of Young Children with Autism
  and their Typically Developing Peers
• Nelson, McDonnell, Johnston, Crompton, Nelson
  (2007) examined the effects of a visual
  intervention strategy on the play initiations of
  4 young children with autism in inclusive
  preschool classes.
• The Keys to Play intervention package utilized an
  embedded instruction, class-wide, peer mediated
  teaching strategy to promote the use of a paper
  key shown to initiate play to students with
  autism in inclusive preschool classrooms.
• Research questions
• Does the Keys to Play intervention package
  increase the play initiations of children with
  autism?
• Does it increase the time spent engaged in
  playgroups?
• Does it affect the childs use of another
  communication strategy (speech, sign language, or
  manipulation of play materials) to enter
  playgroups?
• How do staff and family rate the effectiveness of
  the Keys to Play package?

81
Intro cont.

• Recent research suggests that the use of visual
  strategies for communication purposes promotes
  the use of oral language in children with autism
  (Bondy Frost, 1994 Schwarz, Garfinkle,
  Bauer, 1998).
• Few empirical studies have examined effective
  strategies for teaching social skills to children
  with autism within routines of inclusive
  preschools.
• Several studies have looked at effectiveness of
  peer mediated intervention, but few have looked
  at naturalistic or embedded strategies or the
  combination of the two for the use of children
  with autism in the preschool.
• It is important to include young children with
  autism and other disabilities into regular ed
  classes because benefits occur when children are
  included with peers, socialize with them, and
  actively engage in typical preschool activities
  including play (Harris Handleman, 1997
  Kellegrew, 1995 Koegel, Koegel, Harrower,
  Carter, 1999 McGee, Morrimer, Daly, 2001
  McWilliam, Trivette, Dunst, 1985 Rogers, Hall,
  Osaki, Reaven, Herbison, 2001 Strain, 1983).

82
Method Nelson, McDonnell, Johnston, Crompton,
Nelson (2007)

• Participants and Settings
• 4 preschool children with autism
• Appear to have an interest in the play of other
  children or activities.
• Difficulty with social-communication initiations
  and responses.
• Each attended different preschool programs (2
  Head Start classes, a community class, and an
  integrated special education class with typical
  peers).

83
Dependent Variables

• Percentage of times child used Keys to Play to
  enter a play group.
• Percentage of times a child used another strategy
  such as words, sign language and manipulated
  objects to enter a play group.
• Amount of time spent engaged in playgroup
  activity.

84
Data Collection IOA

• Personal digital assistant (PDA) based data
  collection system asked
• Is there an opportunity?
• Is there an opportunity for initiation or
  responding?
• If there is an opportunity did the child
  initiate?
• When child entered a playgroup, the data
  collector pushed an icon that activated the timer
  to record engagement time.
• 90 of higher point-by-point agreement on all
  behavior categories during on-site observation of
  preschool program.

85
Design Used

• Multiple baseline probe (Tawney Gast, 1984)
  design across children and settings.
• Baseline phase and intervention phase
• 2 children experienced maintenance phase before
  the year ended.

86
Procedure

• What is Keys to Play?
• Keys to Play is a 4-inch long gold laminated
  paper key worn around the neck or attached to the
  childs hip with Velcro and were used during
  learning center time.
• Keys to Play were taught, prompted, and measured
  within the preschool classroom.
• Baseline
• Given Key but no instruction, training or
  prompting.
• Classroom routines and procedures remained the
  same and were not altered.

87
Procedure cont.

• Intervention
• Typical peers were taught first to use Keys to
  Play within a group activity.
• Prompted to show keys to target children and ask
  them to play.
• Target children trained on use of response to the
  keys through incidental teaching, peer mediated
  intervention model (McGee, Morrimer, Daly,
  1999 Prizant, Wetherby, Rydell, 2000).
• If child did not initiate play activity, the
  interventionist modeled use of key with verbal
  phrase I want to play, and used a full physical
  prompt to lead the child to the activity if there
  was no response.

88
Maintenance

• Began when child reached stable 75 or higher
  with unprompted initiations.
• Reinforced by teacher intermittently.
• Data collected once a week for 4 weeks.

89
Results Discussion

• During baseline initiation rates were low
• Engaged time and verbal language in play groups
  for each student rose across teaching conditions
• Correct initiations included verbal, gestural,
  positional, parallel play, Keys to Play, and Keys
  to Play paired with verbal language.
• All children used Keys to Play alone or with
  verbal language during intervention condition.

90
Results Discussion cont.

• Keys to Play package can increase play initiation
  of children with autism.
• All children exhibited increases in initiations
  over the course of the study.
• Demonstrating an interest in play of others and
  using the Keys to Play strategy or another
  strategy to enter playgroups varied across
  children.
• Their interest also varied and was sometimes
  dependent on the activity.
• Keys to Play can increase time engaged in play
• All showed significant gains in time spent in
  playgroups as well as 2 children engaged in
  pretend play.

91
Results Discussion cont.

• Keys to Play may promote use of verbal language
  for initiation purposes
• Consistent with previous findings, visual
  supports may promote the use of verbal language
  in young children with autism (Bondy Frost,
  1994 Johnston, Nelson, Evans, Palazolo, 2003
  Schwartz et al. J, 1998).
• A visual strategy for initiation purposes can
  provide a socially valid way to increase verbal
  and nonverbal play in children with autism.
• Verbal initiations also expanded beyond practice
  phrases.
• Parents commented that play initiations also
  occurred in settings outside of school.
• Systematic replication is needed to verify if
  sites used in this study are representative of
  inclusive preschool programs.

92
End thought

• Visual strategies should and can be taught to
  children with autism to allow successful
  inclusion in preschool (as well as general
  education) classes to provide socialization and
  engagement in typical preschool activities.

93
Research

• Article
• General Education Teachers Relationships with
  Included Students with Autism (Journal of Autism
  and Developmental Disorders)
• Purpose
• Robertson et. al,2003 examined the relationship
  between general education teachers and second-and
  third-grade included students with autism.
• They also examined the effects of childrens
  behavior problems on these relationships, as well
  as inclusion within the social environment of the
  classroom.

94
ResearchRobertson et. al. 2003

• Introduction The goal of the current study was
  to examine the relationship between general
  education teachers and high functioning children
  with autism included full time in general
  education classrooms (included children with
  autism).
• In this study Robertson et al. examined
  teachers perceptions of their relationship with
  included children with autism, how this
  perception might be affected by the presence of
  paraprofessionals and behavior problems, and
  childrens level of social inclusion (measured by
  their peers).

95
Research Robertson et. al. 2003

• Methods
• Participants In all, 187 children from second
  and third grade inclusive classrooms from two
  urban middle class school districts participated
  in this tidy. Of the 187 children, 12 were
  students with autism (2 female)
• Paraprofessionals accompanied half of these
  students
• General Education teachers from all 12 classrooms
  participated
• Additional participants included all the
  children with autisms classmates with parental
  permission.
• The average class size was 19. No class had more
  than 21 students.
• 3-4 children did not participatesocial inclusion
  measures had been described as robust using fewer
  than 50 of students in the classroom.
• All students included in the study were also
  enrolled in their classroom for at least 6 months
  before data collection. The target child with
  autism was the only child with special needs in
  each class.

96
Research Robertson et. al. 2003

• Procedures Procedures were identical for all
  subjects.
• 1) The teacher was first interviewed about her
  teacher experiences including the number of years
  and grade levels taught, credentials, special ed.
  training, and access to special educators and/or
  in-services.
• 2) Participating general education classroom
  teachers were asked to complete the
  Student-Teacher Relationship Scale (Pianta, 1992)
  in response to their relationship with the
  included child in their class.
• 3) Teachers also filled out the SNAP-IV Rating
  Scale (Swanson,1995) to determine the behavioral
  characteristics of the included student with
  autism.
• 4) Classmates were asked to complete a social
  inclusion measure to examine students
  perceptions of the social environment of their
  classroom.
• 5) All participating children in the class,
  including the student with autism, completed a
  free-recall measure of social inclusion of their
  classroom.

97
ResearchRobertson et. al. 2003

• Measures
• Teacher Demographics
• -General education teachers were interviewed and
  asked to complete a short questionnaire assessing
• 1) Their teaching experience (number of years
  teaching, grade levels taught and degrees held)
• 2) Their relationship with the included student
  in their class
• 3) Their relationship with and view of the
  paraprofessional if applicable

98
Research Robertson et. al. 2003

• Student-Teacher Relationship Scale
• General education classroom teachers completed
  the 28-item Student-Teacher Relationship Scale
  (Pianta,1992) to assess teachers feelings about
  their relationship with a student, the students
  interactive behavior with the teacher, and the
  teachers beliefs about the students feelings
  toward the teacher.
• The Snap-IV Rating Scale
• The SNAP-IV (Swanson, 1995) consists of 41 items
  that measure behavioral symptomatology in
  children. This measure was selected to test for
  differences in the qualitative features given
  the presence of maladaptive behaviors. The
  ratings result in 3 subscale scores inattention,
  hyperactivity/impulsivity, and opposition/defiance
  .

99
Research Robertson et. al. 2003

• Level of Inclusion in the Classroom Social
  Structures
• -In examining inclusion in classroom social
  structures students were asked, Are there people
  in school who hang around a lot? Who are they?
  They were then asked to list the names of
  children who hand around together and circle
  lists of names to distinguish separate groupings.
  Within each classroom, childrens level of social
  involvement was measured by their affiliation
  with peers. Each time a child was listed as
  belonging to the same group of peers, they
  received a point. A scored of 0 was obtained in
  the child was not listed as belonging to any
  particular group of peers. A score of 1 if the
  child was listed 1-5 times as belonging to the
  group, A score of 2 if the schools was listed
  6-10 times, and score of 3 11-15 times.
• CairnsCairns,1994 Gariepy, Kinderman, 1990)
• (

100
Research Robertson et. al. 2003

• Results Preliminary analyses were performed to
  examine gender, age, and grade level of students,
  as well as teacher characteristics. Results of
  these tests were nonsignificant. Data were
  collapsed across these variables for all
  subsequent analyses.
• The results indicate considerable variability in
  teachers reports of their relationship with
  included students with autism, childrens level
  of behavior problems, degree of social inclusion,
  and the associations between these factors.

101
Results Robertson et. al. 2003

• Teacher Demographics
• General education teachers years of teaching
  experience ranged from 3-28 years. Across all
  classrooms, teachers had experience teacher
  multiple elementary grades. All teachers had
  completed a B.A about one half had an M.A. None
  had received formal training in special
  education. 83 had never had a student with
  autism in their class (50 had never taught a
  student with special needs)
• Paraprofessionals
• Differences in teachers ratings of closeness,
  conflict, and dependency of these relationships
  were compared for children with and without a
  paraprofessional. Regardless of the presence of
  the paraprofessionals, teachers reported similar
  levels of closeness, conflict, and dependency for
  students with and without a paraprofessional. No
  differences were found.

102
Results Robertson et. al. 2003

• Student Teacher relationship- Childrens
  relationship with their general education
  teachers reflected wide individual differences.
• Child Maladaptive Behaviors- Childrens level of
  behavioral symptomatology also reflected wide
  individual variation.
• Child Maladaptive Behaviors/Teacher-Student
  relationships-These correlations indicate a
  moderate to high association between childrens
  behavioral problems and features of their student
  teacher relationships. Also, a moderate to high
  association between teachers perceptions of
  their relationships with included students with
  autism and their reports of behavioral
  symptomatology.

103
Research Apple et. al. 20005

• The following is a review of the Effects of Video
  Modeling Alone and With Self-Management on
  Compliant-Giving Behaviors of Children with
  High-Functioning ASD, by Apple et. al. 20005,
  Journal of Positive Interventions, Winter, pp
  33-46.
• Purpose The purpose of this experiment 1 was to
  assess the effectiveness of video modeling alone
  for teaching children compliment giving to
  children with high-functioning autism and
  Asperger syndrome.
• Importance The importance of the first
  experiment was there is lack of research in
  studying video modeling alone (e.g. without
  prompts, reinforcement, etc.) DAteno et al.
  (2003) used a procedure of video modeling by
  itself and did not show generalization of play
  sequences or verbalizations.

104
Research Apple et. al. 20005

• Methods
• Participants and Setting included 2 boys
  diagnosed with autism. They were both 5 years
  old. The study took place at a half-day
  preschool for children with ASD. Sessions were
  conducted during free play. In each classroom
  there were 4 adults and 16 peers. There was a
  minimum of 6 typically developing children in
  each classroom. The sessions lasted for 30
  minutes during free play.
• Questionnaires Prior to implementation of the
  study and after the study, parents and teachers
  were asked to answer questionnaires. They rated
  the participants social skills, peer
  relationships, and compliant giving behavior.
• Compliment giving was defined as 3 sentence
  structures or types. 1. A compliment needed to
  include a positive describing word that did not
  need to mention, but could, a target item of
  possession or activity that was engaged in.
  Positive describing words, were adjectives that
  conveyed approval. (e.g. Cool. Nice shirt.)
  2. Included I like with the inclusion of the
  item of possession or with the activity of
  engagement. (e.g. I like your ball.) If a child
  uttered an approval statement that did not fit
  into the 3 structures, all raters had to agree
  that it was an approval statement to be included
  as correct.

105
Research Apple et. al. 20005

• Data collection During 30 minute sessions, 15
  minutes was used to record frequency data on
  initiations and 15 min. of free playtime was used
  to collect data of frequency of responses.
• Experimental design The design used was a
  multiple baseline across participant design.

106
Research Apple et. al. 20005

• Procedures
• Baseline During the baseline phase children were
  observed for 15 min. of free play. Classroom
  peers were during this time provided
  opportunities for participants to engage in
  compliment giving behavior, by pointing to items
  and saying Look.. This created antecedent
  events to evoke desired responses. A peer
  initiation could not occur more than once in a
  2-minute period. If a compliment were give during
  baseline teachers would provide verbal praise.
• Video Modeling 3 times per week, participants
  were brought to another classroom during free
  play to watch a video. There were 3 videos that
  were rotated randomly. After viewing video
  children returned to free play and data were
  collected for 15 min. following the intervention.
  
• Video Modeling and reinforcement phase No
  initiation type compliments were observed during
  the video modeling alone condition so
  reinforcement was included. The procedure was the
  same as in the original video phase with an
  additional step. Before going back to free play,
  the teacher provided verbal behavioral contract
  stating child had to give 4 compliments during
  free play to obtain special prize. 2 peers were
  selected to approach participant, to provide
  opportunities for compliment giving behavior. The
  teacher kept track of compliments and stated
  comments such as thats 2 so far.
• Reinforcement phase Was the same as the video
  and reinforcement phase except the video was
  removed.
• Withdrawal of tangible reinforcement
  Participants were brought back to baseline
  condition.
• Interobserver agreement IOA was conducted for
  33 of all sessions. IOA was 100.

107
Research Apple et. al. 20005

• Results In the video modeling alone condition
  children did respond to peers with approval
  statements but did not make any initiating
  compliments. Reinforcement was added and an
  increase in initiated compliments was observed.
  When the reinforcement was in the withdrawal
  phase children continued to engage in compliment
  behavior but only the response type. This
  demonstrates that the reinforcement was
  controlling the participants initiating
  behavior. The participants continued to engage in
  response compliments after video was removed. The
  authors suggest that this demonstrates that
  reinforcement is not necessary for teaching these
  types of compliments.
• Implications These findings support previous
  research that video modeling is an effective
  teaching strategy to teach learners with autism
  social skills. The addition of rules in video
  modeling procedure may have contributed to
  desired behavior change. Additional
  reinforcement procedures were necessary to teach
  children to initiate compliment behavior. The
  procedures used in this experiment did not
  promote independence. The child relied on the
  teacher to track frequency of compliment
  behaviors. It is possible that the teachers were
  a discriminative stimulus for evoking compliment
  behaviors.

108
Research Apple et. al. 20005

• Experiment 2
• Purpose The purpose of experiment 2 was to teach
  children with autism to engage in compliment
  initiations in the absence of supervision.
• Importance It is important that children engage
  in compliment behaviors independently. These
  behaviors help to demonstrate social reciprocity
  with peers. (Attwood,1998) Direct adult
  monitoring may not always available and may be
  no