Lecture 2: European Imperialism and the Ottoman Empire

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Lecture 2 European Imperialism and the Ottoman
Empire

• Lecture Plan
• Background The Ottoman Empire
• Ottoman Decline defensive modernisation
• European Imperialism
• Westernisation post-independence politics
• Conclusion

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Ottoman Empire in 1856
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Ottoman Empire in 1914
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Ottoman Governance

• 1350-1918 Multi-national, -linguistic,
  -religious empire
• Majorities Christians in Balkans, Turks in
  Anatolia, Arabic-speakers in Fertile Crescent,
  Egypt N. Africa
• Mosaic society autonomous religious millets
  family/tribal fragmentation regional
  decentralisation
• Unifying ideology Islam (Caliphate) Empire
• Sultan-Caliph Islamic legitimation absolute
  ruler central function guarantor of justice
  (adala) consultatitve Diwan Grand-Vizier
  firman (edicts) tax-farming mamluk army
• Elites' intl origins Greeks/bureaucracy,
  Christian-origin Mamluks (slave soldiers)
  Turkish landed elite

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Ottoman Decline

• European pressure internal tension ?
  re-orientation of political/economic structures
• Declining economic base of empire
• Western economic penetration loss of trade
  routes, decline of traditional industries,
  growing debt to Western capital markets (?
  states)
• Internal disintegrative pressures (e.g. Egypt)
• European military pressure (Rus, Aus, UK, Fra)
• Nationalism among Christian minorities in Balkans
  (cf. European trends)

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European Imperialism

• Creeping Conquest and Occupation
• dismemberment of Arabic-speaking realms by
  British French over 100 years
• Algeria (1830) and Egypt (1882), to post-WWI
  Mandates
• Settler Colonialism Palestine Algeria
• European settlement uproots peripherizes native
  populations, subordinates transforms remnants
  of traditional indigenous societies
• Indirect control
• Egypt bankruptcy Dual Control

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Ottoman Decline Defensive Modernisation

• Reforms (Tanzimat) strengthen without disrupting
  traditional order mil.-bur. modernisation/central
  isation, defend borders, ensure tax collection
• Consitutionalism limit Sultan's power create
  politically aware population with rights ? giv a
  stake in society its defence
• secular law Islam seen by some as divisive
  obstacle to modernisation
• military conscription, taxation standing army
• nationalism empire weak for lack of shared sense
  of nationhood
• Consequences
• Rise of new middle class reform requires
  Western-style education/professions, ? W ideas of
  modernisation, nationalism, democracy among new
  middle class.
• Split in Ottoman elite reformists (modern
  military, bureaucrats) struggle with
  traditionalists (military, religious, warlords)
• military early moderniser/nationalists first
  Western-educated, mission of border defence à
  nationalists wanting a strong empire
• Problem of Identity which 'national' identity
  could unite the Empire?
• Ottomanism (Muslim elite, not masses/minorities),
  Islamic revival (antagonises secular middle class
  Christians linked to West), Linguistic
  nationalism (e.g. pan-Turkism alienates Arabs)

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Imposition of a Western-Style State System

• WWI fragmentation into many small states
• Hussein-MacMahon (1915-16), Sykes-Picot (1916),
  Balfour Declaration (1917), Treaty of Sevres
  (1920)
• Artificiality
• some have traditional roots consolidated by
  state system Egypt, Yemen, but
• others are artificial, e.g. protectorate over
  Kuwait dismemberment of Syria (Syria, Lebanon,
  Palestine, Jordan)
• Consequences instability
• Division military-political weakness of small
  feuding states
• Irredentism discontent w/ 'artificial'
  boundaries ? Arab nationalism aims to unite one
  nation, one state (cf. European nationalism)

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Conclusion

• European modernity economic technological
  (industrial
• revolution) cultural-political (nationalism,
  centralisation)
• Economics Industrial Revolution ? economic
  initiative with Europe ? Ottoman decline
  European penetration
• Strategic Industrial Revolution ? European
  military technology production capabilities gt
  Ottoman ? shifting power balance
• Ideology strong impact of European ideologies
  nationalism perceived as source of unity and
  therefore strength ? increasingly popular Islam
  (at times perceived as obstacle) later
  radicalises under continued Western dominance
• Postcoloniality imperialism economics (new
  economic system classes) create internal
  divisions ? post-independence instability
  ('weak/'unfinished' states, artificial ? liable
  to collapse)