Unit 2: Culture and Social Structures

1
Unit 2 Culture and Social Structures

• Ch 3 Culture
• Ch 4 Socialization
• Ch 5 Social Structure and Society
• Ch 6 Groups and Formal Organizations
• Ch 7 Deviance and Social Control

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Ch 3 Culture

• Culture

• The knowledge, language, values, customs,
  physical objects that are passed from one
  generation to the next among members of a group.
• Examples of parts of culture
• Material
• Technology
• Buildings
• Transportation
• Tattoos, piercings
• Food
• Music
• Clothing

Nonmaterial Language Gov.t/Economy Holidays Relig
ion Sports Dancing Values
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• Culture helps explain human social behavior.
• What we do/dont do, like/dislike, believe/deny,
  or value/discount are based on our culture.
• It dictates our relationships w/ others.
• IT MUST BE LEARNED!
• A society is a group of people who live in a
  defined territory participate in a common
  culture culture is that societys total way of
  life.
• So if you move to a different country, you take
  your culture w/ you. You may or may not begin to
  join that society adopt their culture.

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• Influences on behavior besides culture

• Instincts are genetically inherited patterns of
  behavior unlearned ways of acting.
• Why is culture more important than instincts in
  determining human behavior?
• B/c if only instincts controlled us, we would all
  act the same.
• Ex. Parenting
• - Some people want to be
• parents some dont.
• - Some are good some
• abuse their children.
• Culture determines what type of shelter to build,
  food to eat, clothes to wear, etc
• Heredity includes our DNA, reflexes (simple,
  biologically inherited, automatic reactions to
  physical stimuli), drives (biologically
  inherited impulses to discomfort).

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• Sociobiology

• The study of the biological basis of human
  behavior.
• Combines Darwins Theory of Evolution w/ modern
  genetics.
• They assume that the behaviors that contribute to
  the survival of humans are biologically based.
• Ex. sexual reproduction, parental affection
  care, education of the young, friendship, etc
• Applies many of the same beliefs to other
  species.
• Criticisms of sociobiology
• The importance placed on genetics could be used
  to label some races as superior/inferior.
• It doesnt explain the wide variation in
  societies.

End Section 1
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• Passing down culture

• For a culture to continue, it must be learned by
  each new generation.
• The creation transmission of culture depends
  heavily on symbols (things that represent
  something else).
• Symbols include objects, sounds, smells, tastes,
  etc
• The most powerful symbols are those that make up
  language.
• - Language allows us to create culture
  removes limits on explaining time place.

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• Language culture

• The Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity (or The
  Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) states that our idea of
  reality depends largely on what language we
  speak.
• How we think about a thing or idea relates to the
  complexity of words available to describe
  that thing or idea.
• Even varies from one dialect to another.
• When something is important to a society, they
  will have many words to describe it.
• Can change when people learn new languages or
  cultures add words to their language.
• But language isnt the only thing that shapes our
  perception of reality. For ex., experience does
  also.

End Section 2
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• Norms

• The rules defining appropriate inappropriate
  behavior.
• They help explain why people in a group/society
  behave similarly in similar circumstances.
• May guide our behavior w/o our awareness until
  someone breaks a norm.
• There are 3 types of norms
• 1. Folkways rules that cover customary ways of
  thinking, feeling, behaving but lack moral
  overtones. B/c they arent deemed vital to group
  welfare, disapproval of breaking them isnt
  great. We may think people who break these norms
  are odd or rude, but not dangerous or immoral.
  Ex. Talking too loudly.

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• 2. Mores (MOR-ays) are rules that cover ways of
  thinking, feeling, behaving that have moral
  significance shouldnt be broken by members of
  the society. Ex. Incest. A taboo is a norm so
  strong that breaking it demands punishment by the
  group. Incest is the only taboo present in all
  societies (although its definition varies).
• 3. Laws are rules that cover ways of thinking,
  feeling, behaving that are formally defined
  enforced by officials.
• Folkways mores are often unconsciously created
  over time while laws are consciously created
  enforced.
• Laws can come from folkways mores.
• Sometimes laws remain official even after the
  folkways/mores of a society have changed.

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Is it a folkway, more, or law? _________ 1.
A woman smoking while pregnant _________ 2. Mr.
Chamblee picking his nose _________ 3. Kendall
driving 10 mph over the speed limit _________
4. Dani throwing a soda can out of her car
window _________ 5. Tavon loudly belching in
his sociology class _________ 6. Ronald talking
on his cell phone at the movies _________ 7. A
teenager cussing at a minister or
rabbi _________ 8. Shoplifting baby formula to
feed your baby
More
Folkway
Law
Law
Folkway
Folkway
More
Law
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• Norms must be learned accepted. Groups teach
  norms partly through sanctions (rewards or
  punishments used to encourage people to follow
  norms).
• Formal sanctions are sanctions imposed by people
  w/ special authority (Ex. Parents, teachers,
  judges, organizations, etc).
• Informal sanctions are sanctions that can be
  applied by most members of a group.
• As we age, we may conform to norms w/o the fear
  of sanctions b/c we have accepted the behavior,
  wish to avoid guilty feelings, /or fear social
  disapproval. Instead we mentally sanction
  ourselves.

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• Values

• Broad ideas about what is good or desirable
  shared by people in a society.
• Values form the basis for norms.
• Very general, they dont dictate precise ways of
  thinking, feeling, behaving.
• So different societies/groups can have different
  norms based on the same value.
• Ex. Value Freedom of Press
• - Possible norms
• - Can print anything
• - Can print anything that is true
• - Can print anything as long as it doesnt
  hurt anyone
• - Can print anything that is obtained
  legally

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SANCTIONS
are used to enforce
FOLKWAYS MORES LAWS
which are types of
NORMS
that are based on
VALUES
End Section 3
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• Nonmaterial vs. material culture

• Culture can be divided into 2 parts non-material
  material.
• Non-material culture consists of knowledge,
  ideas, beliefs (ideas about the nature of
  reality) that influence peoples behavior.
• Beliefs are important b/c people base their
  behavior on what they believe to be true.
• Material culture consists of the tangible objects
  of a culture the things we can touch.
• The uses meanings of physical objects can vary
  from one society to another.
• Ex. Crosses are holy, flags should be treated w/
  respect, etc
• Ideal culture refers to the cultural guidelines
  that group members claim to accept, but real
  culture is the actual behavior patterns of
  members of a group. Sometimes they conflict.
• But ideal culture is important b/c it provides us
  w/ high standards helps detect deviants.

End Section 4
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• Cultural change

• All cultures experience change.
• Norms, values, beliefs are relatively stable
  but do change over time.
• Why does culture change?
• 1. Discovery discovering something that already
  exists (ex. women can learn math science).
• 2. Invention the creation of something new (ex.
  telephones, cars, etc).
• 3. Diffusion Borrowing aspects of culture from
  other cultures (ex. spaghetti, democracy, etc).

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• Cultural diversity

• Caused by
• Social categories (groups that share a social
  characteristic such as age, gender, or religion)
  certain behaviors are associated w/ particular
  groups.
• Groups that are set apart
• Subcultures (groups that are part of the dominant
  culture but differ from it in some important
  aspects) such as certain ethnic communities w/in
  cities.
• Countercultures (subcultures deliberately
  consciously opposed to certain central beliefs or
  attitudes of the dominant culture) such as the
  hippies or punk groups.
• Ethnocentrism is judging others in terms of ones
  own cultural standards. It can help people feel
  good about themselves promote stability through
  traditions behavior emphasized. But it can
  also lead to societies becoming inflexible
  feelings of superiority.
• Read p.80 Cultural Relativism

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• Cultural universals

• General cultural traits that exist in all
  cultures.
• Researchers have found over 70. Includes sports,
  music, cooking, clothing, division of labor,
  education, gov.t, etiquette, family, marriage,
  sexual restrictions, religious rituals, etc
• There are different ways of expressing universals
  known as cultural particulars. Ex. Different
  styles of clothing or housing, marriage laws,
  etc
• Why do cultural universals exist?
• Biological similarity of humans ex. we all need
  food children must be cared for in order for
  society to continue, etc
• The physical environment ex. clothing housing
  is needed to protect us from the elements, etc
• Societies face many of the same problems to
  survive, they must teach new members their
  culture ex. language, how to divide up labor,
  etc

End Section 5
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Ch 4 Socialization

• Socializations effects on personality

• Socialization is the cultural process of learning
  to participate in group life.
• Nearly all human social behavior we consider
  natural normal is learned.
• Socialization begins at birth continues
  throughout life.
• Successful socialization results in people being
  able to fit into all kinds of social groups.
• W/o the proper socialization skills, youd have
  difficulty making friends, finding keeping a
  job, belonging to clubs, maintaining romantic
  relationships, etc
• Psychological studies show that w/o prolonged
  intensive social contact children dont learn
  basics like walking, talking, loving, etc

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• In Harry Harlows experiment, baby monkeys would
  attach themselves to a cloth surrogate monkey w/o
  food instead of a wood wire monkey w/ food,
  showing that imprinting is also important for
  contact comfort.
• Infant monkeys raised in isolation grew into
  hostile, distressed, apathetic adults who never
  exhibited normal sexual patterns. As mothers,
  they rejected or ignored their babies sometimes
  abused them.
• So clearly socialization is important to other
  primates as well.
• Human babies denied close contact usually have
  difficulty forming emotional ties w/ others.
• Read p.113-114 Case Studies on Isolated
  Children Anna and Isabelle

End Section 1
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• Views of socialization Functionalism Conflict
  Perspective

• Functionalism believes socialization helps create
  a stable society by teaching the same basic
  norms, beliefs, values.
• The Conflict Perspective believes socialization
  is a way of keeping the status quo so it
  maintains the advantages of the upper classes,
  thus keeping things unbalanced in conflict.

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• Views of socialization Symbolic Interactionism

• Believes that socialization is the major deciding
  factor in human nature.
• So how are we socialized according to symbolic
  interactionism?
• Your self-concept is an image of yourself as a
  separate identity from other people.
• Other people serve as mirrors for the development
  of your self-concept. So your looking-glass self
  is your image of yourself based on what you
  believe others think of you. The process is
  often rapid unconscious.
• 1. We imagine how we appear to others.
• 2. We imagine their reaction to our (imagined)
  appearance.
• 3. We evaluate ourselves based on how we imagine
  others have judged us.
• Leads to a positive or negative self-evaluation.
• The looking-glass can be distorted.
• Significant others are people whose reactions are
  the most important to your self-concept.

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• Role taking involves assuming the viewpoint of
  another person using that viewpoint to shape
  the self-concept.
• We try to anticipate what others will say/do
  how to respond to them.
• This ability develops in a 3 step process
• 1. During the imitation stage (begins around 1½-2
  yrs old) children imitate the physical verbal
  behavior of significant others w/o understanding.
• 2. During the play stage (begins around 3-4 yrs
  old) children act in ways they imagine other
  people would assuming those roles one at a
  time.
• - Ex. playing mommy, teacher or police
  officer.
• 3. During the game stage we anticipate the
  actions of others based on social rules are
  able to consider the roles of several people
  simultaneously.

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• As we grow older we develop the concept of a
  generalized other (the internalized attitudes,
  expectations, viewpoints of society that guide
  our behavior reinforce our sense of self) in
  which we imagine how our actions are viewed by
  others.
• Your self is composed of 2 parts
• The me is the part created through
  socialization accounts for predictability
  conformity.
• The I is the part that accounts for unlearned,
  spontaneous often creative acts.
• The I constantly interacts w/ the me. The
  1st reaction of the self comes from the I, but
  (usually) before we act, the me directs our
  reaction into socially acceptable channels.

End Section 2
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• Agents of socialization the family

• The family is critical for helping a child
• Think speak
• Internalize norms, beliefs, values
• Form some basic attitudes
• Develop a capacity for intimate personal
  relationships
• Acquire a self-image
• Our familys social class also shapes what we
  think of ourselves how others treat us.

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• Agents of socialization schools

• Schools introduce children to life beyond the
  family.
• Many of the childs relationships are now
  impersonal rewards/punishments are based on
  performance instead of affection.
• Slowly, children are taught to be less
  emotionally dependent on their parents.
• Besides the obvious curriculum, children are also
  taught the hidden curriculum (the informal
  unofficial aspects of culture that children are
  taught in preparation for life) about things such
  as discipline, cooperation, conformity, etc
• Schools also teach children about how time is
  experienced in the real world w/ schedules
  deadlines.

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• Agents of socialization peers

• A peer group is a set of individuals of roughly
  the same age interests.
• This is the only agency of socialization not
  primarily controlled by adults.
• Children have the opportunity to engage in
  give-and-take relationships unlike family
  schools where they are subordinates.
• Children usually belong to several peer groups.
• Gives children experience in self-direction as
  they begin to make their own decisions.
• They develop self-sufficiency.

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• Agents of socialization mass media

• Mass media refers to the means of communication
  designed to reach the general population.
• Includes tv, radio, internet, books, music,
  movies, newspapers, magazines, etc
• Although often highly distorted, its often
  through mass media that children are 1st
  introduced to many aspects of their culture.
• Provides role models for children to imitate
  gives examples of how to behave in social
  situations (again, often distorted).
• Offers ideas about the values of our society.
• Most sociologists agree that watching aggressive
  behavior in the media significantly
• aggressive behavior.

End Section 3
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• Desocialization resocialization

• Symbolic interactionism believes socialization is
  a lifelong process.
• Desocialization is the process by which people
  give up old norms, values, attitudes,
  behaviors.
• Often involves the destruction of the old
  self-concept of personal identity.
• Often occurs in total institutions (places in
  which people are separated from the rest of
  society controlled by officials) such as
  prisons, mental hospitals, cults, etc
• Often involves the removal of personal
  possessions, loss of privacy, use of serial
  numbers instead of names this contributes to
  the breakdown of their past identity.
• Resocialization is the process in which people
  adopt new norms, values, attitudes, behaviors.
• This can occur in total institutions through the
  use of rewards punishments.
• Also occurs during changes in life stages, such
  as starting college, getting married, retiring,
  etc

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• Anticipatory socialization

• The voluntary process of preparing to accept new
  norms, values, attitudes, behaviors.
• Doesnt generally occur in prisons or mental
  hospitals b/c it involves VOLUNTARY change.
• May occur in people who are moving from one stage
  in their lives to another (Ex. going to college,
  getting married, retiring, etc)
• A reference group is a group whose norms values
  are used to guide behavior often the group w/
  whom you identify.

End Section 4
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Ch 5 Social Structure and Society

• Social structure

• The underlying patterns of relationships in a
  group.
• We learn social structure from others.
• A status is a position a person occupies w/in a
  social structure. It helps us define who what
  we are in relation to others w/in the same social
  structure.
• An ascribed status is a position that is not
  earned nor chosen, but assigned.
• Ex. gender, age, etc
• An achieved status is a position that is earned
  or chosen.
• Ex. career, marital status, etc

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• A person holds more than one status at a time. A
  status set is all of the statuses that a person
  occupies at any particular time.
• Ex. female, 30 yrs old, single, teacher,
  daughter, sister, Christian, etc
• Some statuses are more important to individuals
  than others. A master status is important b/c it
  strongly affects most other aspects of a persons
  life.
• Occupations are often master statuses. Age can
  be as well. So master statuses may be ascribed
  or achieved.

End Section 1
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• Rights obligations

• A role is an expected behavior associated w/ a
  particular status.
• A role is a status in action.
• A status contains various roles.
• Ex. A teacher must grade, develop lesson plans,
  communicate w/ parents administrators, keep up
  w/ current best practices in education,
  discipline unruly students, motivate, etc
• So a status describes a position a role
  describes a behavior.
• Rights are behaviors that an individual expects
  from others.
• Obligations are behaviors that individuals are
  expected to perform towards others.
• A persons culture influences their roles,
  rights, obligations.
• Ex. a wife in America compared to a wife in a
  remote African village.

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• Role performance social interaction

• Role performance is the actual behavior of an
  individual in a role.
• Can occur w/o an audience (ex. a basketball
  player practicing while alone) but usually
  involves social interaction.
• Social interaction is how people relate to each
  other influence each others behavior.
• Ex. One boy taunts another. The other boy calls
  him a name in return. The first boy then punches
  him leading to a fight.

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• Role conflict role strain

• Role conflict exists when the performance of a
  role in one status interferes w/ the performance
  of a role in another.
• Ex. Students w/ jobs balancing time to study w/
  work demands.
• Role strain occurs when the roles of a single
  status are inconsistent or conflicting.
• The problem is often a lack of time.
• Ex. A politician must spend time campaigning to
  get reelected while still trying to perform the
  duties for the current term.
• We deal w/ role conflict strain by setting
  priorities /or segregating roles (behaving
  differently while in different roles).

End Section 2
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• Types of societies

• A society is made up of people living w/in
  defined territorial borders sharing a common
  culture.
• Societies must meet their members basic needs
  such as food shelter, but they do it in
  different ways. Those differences determine how
  societies are classified.
• There are 3 types
• Preindustrial
• Industrial
• Postindustrial
• All societies are comprised of social structures
  w/ members knowing what is expected of them
  what they can expect from others (rights
  obligations).

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• Preindustrial societies Hunting gathering

• Survive by hunting animals gathering edible
  foods.
• Oldest type of society.
• Usually nomadic due to food supply changing
  seasons.
• So they must carry all of their possessions w/
  them.
• Tend to be very small (50 or less people).
• Sharing cooperation are highly valued w/ little
  or no concept of private property.
• No social classes.
• No political institutions.
• Division of labor is based on age gender.
• Primary emphasis is on the survival of the group.

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• Preindustrial societies Horticultural

• Survive primarily through the growing of plants
  gardening.
• These types of societies came into existence
  about 10-12 thousand yrs ago when people learned
  they could grow harvest some plants instead of
  just gathering them.
• Led to more permanent settlements.
• Societies grew, averaging 1-2 thousand people.
• Primary emphasis is on providing for the family.

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• Preindustrial societies Pastoral

• Survive primarily by raising taking care of
  animals.
• Mostly use herd animals like cattle, camels,
  goats, sheep which provide milk meat.
• Although horticultural societies also kept
  domesticated animals like pigs chickens, the
  difference is in where most of their food comes
  from.
• These types of societies came into existence
  about the same time as horticultural societies
  did.
• They must do some farming or trade w/ those who
  do for necessary grains to feed themselves
  their animals.
• More migration than in than in horticultural or
  agricultural societies, but long-term villages
  can be maintained, depending on the terrain
  climate.
• Women remain in the home while men herd the
  animals so womens status is diminished.
• The rise of horticultural pastoral societies
  led to a surplus food supply.
• Allowed for a more complex division of labor
  (pottery making, religious leaders, etc).
• Trade w/ other societies.
• Beginning of social inequalities, thus social
  classes, as some people have more of a surplus
  than others.

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• Preindustrial societies Agricultural

• Survive primarily by growing food through the use
  of the plow animals.
• The difference b/w agricultural horticultural
  societies is the use of the plow this enables
  people to grow food much more efficiently.
• Led to a larger surplus of food.
• People could now spend more time on noneconomic
  activities such as formal education, politics,
  music, etc
• Led to the rise of cities.
• Although families are still important, the gov.t
  replaced them as the guiding force for the
  societies.
• Distinct social classes appeared w/ wealth
  power based on land ownership.
• Trade becomes vital.
• systems also develop instead of just bartering
  goods services.

End Section 3
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• Industrial societies

• Depend on science technology to produce its
  basic goods services.
• Human animal labor is largely replaced by
  machines. This is known as mechanization.
• Goods services are paid for w/ wages.
• Extremely large food surpluses lead to
  urbanization (the shifting of population from
  farms villages to large cities).
• Education shifts to more formal schools.
• Blood relations in importance.
• Women become less subordinate to men as they take
  paying jobs.
• Personal love choice replace arranged
  marriages.
• Social class tends to be based more on
  occupational achievement than on the social class
  of ones parents.

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• Emile Durkheim (France)
• Claimed that society is distinguished based on
  its type of social solidarity (the degree to
  which a society is unified in the face of
  obstacles). Social solidarity is the result of
  societys division of labor
• Believed in preindustrial times where labor tasks
  were similar simple, societies were based on
  mechanical solidarity (social dependency based on
  widespread consensus of values beliefs,
  enforced conformity, dependence on tradition
  family).
• Believed industrialized societies where labor
  tasks are different complex, societies are
  based on organic solidarity (social
  interdependency based on a high degree of
  specialization in roles).

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• Postindustrial societies

• Economic emphasis is on providing services
  information over basic manufactured goods.
• Has 5 major features
• 1. The majority of the labor force are employed
  in services instead of agriculture
  manufacturing.
• - In 2000, 75 of Americans worked in
  service industries.
• 2. White-collar employment replaces
• much blue-collar work.
• 3. Technical knowledge is the key
• organizing feature.
• 4. Technological change is planned
• organized.
• 5. Reliance on computer modeling in all
• areas.

End Section 4
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Ch 6 Groups and Formal Organizations

• Group

• Composed of people who share several features
• They share some ways of thinking, feeling,
  behaving.
• They take one anothers behavior into account.
• They have one or more interest or goal in common.
• They are in regular contact w/ one another.
• INTERACTION AMONG MEMBERS IS KEY!!!
• Can be Small ? Large
• Informal ? Formal
• Loose boundaries ? Tight boundaries

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• A social category is made up of people who share
  a social characteristic.
• Ms. Griggss sociology students
• The poor
• Women
• 3 yr olds
• A social aggregate is made up of people who
  happen to be in the same place at the same time.
• Standing in a check-out line
• Waiting in a dentists office
• Social categories aggregates may decide to
  interact form a group.
• Teenagers protest a city-wide curfew
• Bystanders help someone involved in an accident.

45

• Primary groups

• Groups made up of people who are emotionally
  close, know one another well, seek one
  anothers company. They are characterized by
  primary relationships (interactions that are
  intimate, personal, caring, fulfilling).
• Conditions that favor primary groups are
• Small size
• Face-to-face contact
• Continuous contact
• Proper social environment
• Think of a basketball team vs. a teacher
  student relationship
• Functions of primary groups
• Emotional support
• Socialization
• Encourage conformity
• Ex Family, close circle of friends, etc

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• Secondary groups

• Groups that are impersonal goal oriented. They
  involve only a segment of its members lives.
  They interact impersonally, in ways involving
  only a limited part of their personalities known
  as secondary relationships.
• Ex. The senior class of TLH, coworkers at
  McDonalds, members of the Interact Club, an army
  platoon, etc
• Members of secondary groups may be friends w/
  each other, but the purpose of the group is to
  accomplish a task, not enrich friendships if
  the friendships become more important than the
  task, the group may become ineffective.
• Most groups fall somewhere in b/w the 2 extremes.
• Primary relationships may form in secondary
  groups secondary relationships may form in
  primary groups.
• Ex. 2 coworkers becoming friends or a family
  member loaning another .

End Section 1
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• Reference groups

• Are groups we use to evaluate ourselves against
  to acquire attitudes, values, beliefs, norms.
• You dont have to be a member of the group.
• Can be positive /or negative attributes of the
  group.
• May serve as examples of what NOT to do, believe,
  etc
• Can include
• Family
• Friends
• Teachers
• Rock groups
• Athletes
• Church groups
• Etc

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• In groups vs. Out groups

• There cant be one w/o the other.
• An in group is an exclusive group demanding
  intense loyalty.
• An out group is a group targeted by an in group
  for opposition, antagonism, /or competition.
• Ex. rival gangs, jocks vs. nerds, ethnic groups,
  religions, etc
• In groups need boundaries to distinguish who is
  in who is out.
• Can be symbols like slang, handshakes, gang signs
  or colors, badges, skin color, etc or an actual
  place.
• Boundaries can form entrance barriers to
  outsiders.
• Maintaining boundaries shows loyalty
  commitment, but can lead to cruelty /or violence.

49

• Social networks

• A web of social relationships that join a person
  to other people groups.
• Ex

Family
Family
Sister's Friends
Parents Friends
Friends
Friends
Family
In-laws
Family
Teachers/Coaches
Classmates
Band
Volunteer group
Baseball teammates
Visiting pastors
Bosses
Coworkers
Customers
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• Social networks can have multiple functions
• Provide a sense of belonging purpose
• Provide help advice
• Help entering labor market
• The internet has made it possible to the
  speed flow of information among social networks
  which tends to promote a sense of membership w/in
  a particular network.
• Social networks arent groups b/c they lack
  boundaries dont involve close or continuous
  interaction among all members some
  relationships may also be too temporary.
• Include primary secondary groups w/ strong
  weak ties.

End Section 2
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• Types of group social interaction Cooperation

• Interaction in which individuals or groups
  combine their efforts to reach some goal.
• Usually occurs when reaching a goal requires the
  best use of limited resources efforts.
• Ex. Flood victims
• Children playing games
• Team sports
• Couples dividing household duties

52

• Types of group social interaction Conflict

• Interaction involving trying to defeat an
  opponent.
• Working for a larger share of the rewards.
• Defeating the opponent is necessary.
• May become more important than achieving the
  goal.
• Usually considered disruptive, but can be
  beneficial. It can
• Promote unity w/in opposition.
• Draw attention to social inequalities.
• Change norms, beliefs, values in positive ways.

53

• Types of group social interaction Social Exchange

• A voluntary action performed w/ the expectation
  of getting a reward in return.
• Benefit to be earned is more important than the
  relationship.
• Leads to reciprocity (the idea that you should do
  for others as they have done for you).
• Different from cooperation b/c its just about
  Whats in it for me? vs. working together for a
  common goal.

54

• Types of group social interaction Coercion

• Interaction in which individuals or groups are
  forced to give in to the will of other
  individuals or groups.
• One group has power over the other.
• Opposite of social exchange.
• May be done through physical force or social
  pressure.
• Ex. Parents enforcing curfews
• Gov.ts punishing criminals
• Gov.ts torturing POWs
• Bullying
• Hazing

55

• Types of group social interaction Conformity

• Behavior that matches group expectations.
• We adapt our behavior to fit in w/ those around
  us.
• Promotes uniformity, predictability,
  orderliness.
• Its necessary in society imagine life if
  people didnt conform to traffic laws.
• Can lead to groupthink (self-deceptive thinking
  that is based on conformity to group beliefs
  created by group pressure to conform).
• Members are pressured to uniformity discouraged
  for expressing any concerns about group
  decisions.
• Can be avoided if group members make a conscious
  effort to encourage multisided discussions the
  group is aware that disagreement will be
  tolerated.

56

• Solomon Aschs conformity experiment
• (This is NOT all in your book, but you are
  expected to know it!)

• Asch conducted a conformity experiment w/ male
  college students in the 1950s.
• Procedure Asch put a naïve participant
  (unknowing participant the person whose
  responses are under study) in a room w/ 7
  confederates (participants who were told how to
  answer).  The confederates agreed in advance what
  their answers would be.  The naïve participant
  didnt know this was told the confederates were
  real participants like him.  Each person in the
  room had to state aloud which comparison line (A,
  B or C) was most like the target line. The answer
  was always obvious, the real participant always
  gave his answer last.  In 12 of 18 trials, the 7
  confederates gave the wrong answer. This
  experiment was repeated w/ different naïve
  subjects.

57

• Results Asch measured the of times each
  participant conformed to the majority view.  On
  average, 1/3 (32) of the participants
  conformed.  Over the 18 trials about 75 of
  participants conformed at least once 25 of
  participants never conformed.
• Conclusion Most of the naïve participants said
  they didnt really believe their conforming
  answers, but had gone along w/ the group for fear
  of being ridiculed a few said they did believe
  the group's answers were correct.
• Apparently, people conform for 2 main reasons
  b/c they want to fit in w/ the group /or they
  believe the group is better informed than they
  are.
• Issues Sample NOT representative results are a
  product of the time in history.
• Perrin Spencer (1980) carried out the same
  experiment w/ British engineering, mathematics,
  chemistry students. In only 1 out of 396 trials
  did a participant conform w/ the incorrect
  majority. 

58

• Factors affecting conformity
• (This is NOT in your book, but
• you are expected to know it!)

Factors that conformity Factors that conformity
Size of Group Conformity as group size , but there is little change once the group reaches 4-5. Lack of Group Unanimity Asch found just 1 person going against the group can conformity as much as 80.
Difficulty of Task The harder the task, the more people conform. When we are uncertain, we look to others for confirmation. Answer in Private When participants can answer in private, conformity . This is b/c there is no fear of rejection from the group.
Status of Majority Group If someone has high status or a lot of knowledge (Ex. boss or teacher), more people will conform to their opinions. The the status of the group the the level of conformity.
End Section 3
59

• Formal organizations

• Prior to industrialization, people w/in a society
  spent the majority of their daily lives in
  primary groups (family, small schools, churches,
  etc).
• Urbanization leads to people spending more time
  w/in formal organizations (groups deliberately
  created to achieve 1 or more long-term goals).
  Examples
• Colleges
• Hospitals
• Gov.t agencies
• Etc
• Most formal organizations are also bureaucracies
  (formal organizations based on rationality
  efficiency).
• Rationalization is the mind-set emphasizing
  knowledge, reason, planning.

60

• Characteristics of bureaucracies

• 1. Division of labor based on specialization.
• Creates experts in each area.
• 2. A hierarchy of authority.
• Power is the ability to control the behavior of
  others.
• Authority is the legitimate or socially approved
  used of power.
• Creates a pyramid of power with few at the top
  many at the bottom.
• 3. A system of rules procedures.
• Directs how work is done decisions are made.
• 4. Written or computerized records of work
  activities.
• This organizational memory leads to smooth
  functioning, stability, continuity.
• 5. Promotions based on merit qualifications.
• Equal treatment for all.

61

• Advantages of bureaucracies

• Decision makers are chosen based on capability in
  a non-discriminatory way (or at least closer to
  that) as opposed to in the past when they were
  chosen based on wealth or family.
• They tend to be steady, precise, speedy,
  efficient, low-cost, provide continuity.
• Although many complain about the impersonal
  treatment of bureaucracies, they are designed to
  protect individuals against favoritism
  arbitrary decision making.
• Although discrimination still exists,
  bureaucracies lesson its effects.

62

• Informal organizations

• Are groups w/in a formal organization in which
  personal relationships are guided by norms,
  rituals, sentiments that are not part of the
  formal organization.
• Conformity to informal organization may be
  maintained through ridicule, sarcasm, criticism,
  hostility.
• They exist to meet the needs ignored by formal
  organizations. They offer more personal
  affection, support, humor, protection.
• They encourage conformity, but result in
  solidarity which protects group members from
  outside mistreatment.

63

• The iron law of oligarchy

• Is the theory that power increasingly tends to
  become more more concentrated in the hands of a
  few members of any organization.
• Includes democratic organizations.
• Powerful members want to maintain even gain
  power.
• 3 organizational factors encourage oligarchy
• 1. Organizations need a hierarchy of authority
  to delegate decision making.
• 2. The advantages of being at the top allow
  them to strengthen their powers.
• They create a staff that is loyal to them,
  control the communications, use organizational
  resources to their power.
• 3. Other members of the organization often
  defer to leaders they give in.

End Section 4
64
Ch 7 Deviance and Social Control

• Deviance

• Behavior that departs from societal or group
  norms.
• It doesnt have to be illegal (Ex. wearing
  sagging pants or too much make-up).
• What is considered deviant varies from one
  individual group society to another.
• In diverse societies like the US, people widely
  disagree on what qualifies as deviant behavior.
• Negative deviance involves behavior that fails to
  meet accepted norms. People either reject,
  misinterpret, or are unaware of the norms.
• Positive deviance is over-conforming to social
  expectations.
• Leads to imbalance extreme perfectionism.
• Ex. Society considers thinness to be the ideal
  look. Obesity negative deviance
• Anorexia positive deviance
• Sociologists consider a deviant to be a person
  who has violated 1 or more of societys
  most highly valued norms.

65

• Social control

• Ways to encourage conformity to societys norms.
• Encourages order, stability, predictability.
• There are 2 types internal external
• Internal social control comes from w/in the
  individual is developed during the
  socialization process. We internalize social
  norms usually dont break them.
• External social control is based on social
  sanctions (rewards punishments that encourage
  conformity to social norms). They may be
  positive or negative, formal or informal.

End Section 1
66

• Effects of deviance

• Negative
• Destroys trust
• If not punished, can lead to nonconforming
  behavior in others
• Expensive diverts resources (both human
  monetary)
• Positive
• Claries norms (helps us decide where to draw the
  line)
• Minor deviance may relieve pressure more
  serious deviant behavior
• Can build unity w/in a society
• Can promote needed social change

67

• Strain theory

• An anomie is a social condition in which norms
  are weak, conflicting, or absent.
• People dont know how to behave b/c there is no
  clear acceptable behavior.
• The strain theory proposes that deviance is more
  likely to occur when a gap exists b/w cultural
  goals the ability to achieve these goals by
  legitimate means.
• Ex. In our society, wealth is considered a normal
  goal. In poor neighborhoods, there is a lack of
  opportunity to earn legally, so gangs often
  form
• So how do people respond to strain?
• 1. Conformity (only way that is NOT deviant)
• 2. Innovation uses illegal means to achieve
  success of social goals (Ex. Gangs)
• 3. Ritualism rejects the goal, but continues
  to use legitimate means (Ex. Politician who
  doesnt really care, but keeps trying to get
  re-elected)
• 4. Retreatism rejects goals methods of
  achieving them they quit trying (Ex. Drug
  addicts)
• 5. Rebellion reject goals methods of
  achieving them develop new goals methods
  (Ex. Some militia groups)

68

• Control theory

• Proposes that conformity to social norms depends
  on the presence of strong bonds b/w individuals
  society.
• The less connected an individual feels to his/her
  society, the more likely he/she is to become a
  deviant.
• Social bonds control peoples behavior b/c they
  dont want to lose standing w/in their social
  groups.
• The basic elements of social bonds are
• 1. Attachment to groups
• 2. Commitment (willingness to work)
• 3. Involvement (participation w/in social
  activities)
• 4. Belief (agreeing w/ societys norms)
• The stronger these elements are, the more likely
  a person is to conform.

End Section 2
69

• How is deviance learned?

• The Differential Association Theory emphasizes
  the role of primary groups in passing on deviant
  behavior. The more people are exposed to
  deviance, the more likely they are to become
  deviants. Odds
• if the individual
• 1. Knows more deviants than nondeviants.
• 2. Is very close to the deviants.
• 3. Is exposed to deviants at a young age.

70

• The labeling theory

• States that society creates deviance by
  identifying particular members as deviant.
• These labels are often applied unevenly.
• An unmarried pregnant teenage girl is often seen
  as deviant but the babys father is not (or not
  as much).
• 2 youths knock over mailboxes on separate
  occasions the poor one is seen as committing a
  crime by destroying property gets a heavy fine
  w/ jail time the middle class one is seen as
  playing a harmless prank gets a slap on the
  wrist.

71

• Degrees of deviance
• Consequences of labeling

• Primary deviance is deviance involving occasional
  breaking of norms that isnt a part of the
  persons lifestyle or self-concept.
• Secondary deviance is deviance in which an
  individuals lifestyle identity are organized
  around breaking societys norms.
• The deviant status overshadows all others these
  individuals actively regularly plan to commit
  deviant behavior. Deviance becomes a way of
  life.
• Can cause the individuals pain suffering by
  giving them a stigma (an undesirable trait or
  label that is used to characterize an
  individual).
• Ex Ex-convicts, unemployed, etc

End Section 3
72

• How do industrialized societies deal w/ deviant
  behavior?

• The conflict perspective sees deviant behavior as
  behavior that those in power believe is a threat
  to their interests.
• Critics of industrialized societies are
  considered deviants b/c their beliefs challenge
  the economic, political, social basis.
• Industrialized societies need a willing
  workforce, so those who wont work are considered
  deviants.
• Those who threaten private property (especially
  the property of the rich) are prime targets for
  punishment.
• People who show a lack of respect for authority
  are treated as deviants even if its
  non-violent behavior.
• Certain activities are encouraged if they promote
  that societys goals (Ex. Sports can be violent
  b/c they have rules encourage competition).

73

• Crime punishment inequalities

• Even when the criminal offense is the same,
  Blacks Hispanics are more likely than whites to
  be convicted to serve more time.
• Blacks make up about 12 of the USs population,
  but make up about 43 of inmates under the death
  penalty.
• In interracial murders, a black person is 13x
  more likely to be sentenced to death for the
  murder of a white person as a white person is for
  murdering a black person.
• About ½ of all homicide victims in the US are
  black, but the overwhelming majority of death row
  inmates are there for murdering whites.

74

• So why the inequality?
• Minorities are less likely to have the economic
  resources to buy good legal services.
• The conflict perspective believes that society
  views minority interests as less important.
• Victim discounting (process of the
  seriousness of crime that injures people of lower
  status) occurs b/c if the victim is thought of as
  less valuable, the crime is considered less
  serious, the punishment is therefore less
  severe.
• Ex. Murdering a drug dealer vs. murdering a
  police officer or politician.

75

• White-collar crime

• Job-related crimes committed by high-status
  people.
• Includes things like price fixing, insider
  trading, embezzlement, bribery, toxic pollution,
  tax evasion, etc
• According to the US Dept. of Justice, the cost of
  white-collar crimes are 18x than the costs
  of street crime.
• Illegal working environments cause about 1/3 of
  all work related deaths in the US 5x more