Mnemonic Strategies

1
Mnemonic Strategies

• Chunking
• Method of Loci
• Peg Word Mnemonic

2
Chunking

• Grouping elements into chunks
• Chase and Ericcsons subjects
• Chunked digits into running times
• Remembered up to 82 digits!
• Not as effective as more elaborative strategies

3
Method of Loci

• Based upon visual imagery
• Imagine a grocery list
• (eggs, milk, cheese, bread, butter)
• Imaging items placed in a common scene
• To recall, mentally stroll through scene
• Bizarreness / distinctiveness

4
Peg Word Mnemonic

• Uses prememorized list (e.g., rhyme)
• One is a bun gt
• Two is a shoe gt
• Three is a tree gt
• Four is a door gt

5
Acronyms

• Create word from beginning letters
• Create a limerick from beginning letters
• OOOTTAFAGVAH 12 Cranial nerves

6
Why Do Mnemonics Devices Work?

• Provide structure for learning
• Provide durable trace (less interference)
• Provide retrieval structure

7
Which Mnemonic is the Best?

• Roediger (1980)

8
Interaction of Encoding and Retrieval Processes

• Anderson Pichert (1978)
• Participants read a story about the activities of
  two boys at home either from the point of view of
  a burglar or a homebuyer
• Later the participants were asked to remember as
  much as possible about the story they read
• The point of view affected what participants
  recalled
• Homebuyers were more likely to remember that the
  basement was musty
• Burglars were more likely to remember the coin
  collection and color TV

9
To Understand Memory Processes

• Need to understand encoding processes, retrieval
  processes, and how they function together for
  short term storage (STM) and long term storage
  (LTM)

10
Encoding Processes

• Creating an acoustic code
• What it sounds like
• Creating a semantic code
• What it means
• Creating a visual code
• What it looks like

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Encoding Types and STM

• Type of code may rely on type of task
• STM refers to memory that needs to be held
  temporarily
• Evidence exists for a variety of encoding types
  for STM

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Evidence for Acoustic Encoding in STM

• Conrad (1964)
• Visually present a series of letters
• Ask participants to write the order letters are
  presented
• What types of errors are made?

13
Conrad (1964)

• Found evidence for the use of an acoustic code in
  STM
• Participants made acoustic errors
• F for S, B for V, P for B
• Not visual errors
• E for F, O for Q, R for P
• Participants encoded items acoustically even
  though stimuli were presented visually

V . . . B!
14
Shulman (1970)

• Evidence for semantic encoding in STM
• Participants viewed 10-word lists
• Given a recognition test using visually
  represented "probe words" which were either
• Homonyms - e.g. "bawl" for "ball"
• Synonyms - e.g. "talk" for "speak"
• Identical to the original word

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Shulman (1970) Results

• The Homonym and Synonym probes produced similar
  error rates - this suggests that an equal amount
  of acoustic and semantic processing must be
  taking place
• Homonyms - e.g. "bawl" for "ball"
• Synonyms - e.g. "talk" for "speak"
• Identical to the original word

16
Posner Keele (1967)

• Evidence for visual encoding in STM
• Letter matching task
• Two letters separated by brief interval
• Participant had to indicate if same letter
• A-a Yes
• A-A Yes
• A-M No
• Measure reaction time

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Posner Keele (1967) Results

• If letters were the same visually (a-a)
  participants were faster than if the letters were
  not the same visually (A-a)
• Results indicate that visual code was also
  present for STM

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Encoding Types LTM

• Type of code may rely on type of task
• LTM refers to memory that may be held permanently
  
• Evidence exists for a variety of encoding types
  for LTM

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Semantic Encoding in LTM

• Grossman Eagle (1970)
• Study 41 different words
• Given recognition test after delay
• 9 of the distractors were semantically related to
  words on list
• 9 of the distractors were not
• False alarms for each type 1.83 of synonyms, but
  only 1.05 of unrelated

20
Visual Encoding in LTM

• Frost (1972)
• Participants studied 16 drawings
• Manipulated visual orientation and semantic
  category
• After a delay, participants were asked if they
  had studied an object with the same name as the
  test object
• Reaction time was measured
• Participants responded faster to identical
  drawings than drawings in a different orientation
• This result indicates visual encoding occurred

21
Acoustic Encoding in LTM

• Evidence of very long-term memory for songs
• Rubin (1977)
• Participants recall more of the text when
  provided with the melody of a well-learned song
  ("Star Spangled Banner") than when given no cue

22
Transfer from STM to LTM

• Consolidation
• Integrating new information into stored
  information
• Disruption of consolidation is studied in
  amnesiacs
• ECT patients (Squire)

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Principles to Strengthen Memory

• Elaborative rehearsal is better than maintenance
  rehearsal
• Distributed practice is better than massed
  practice
• Spacing effect
• Organizing information to enhance memory

24
Why Does Distributed Practice Work?

• REM Theory
• The more REM sessions following study sessions,
  the more consolidation that occurs
• Multiple encoding contexts theory
• Multiple study sessions lead to multiple types of
  encoding, thus more possibility of matching
  during test conditions

25
Prospective Memory

• The ability to remember a future intention
• Buying bread on your way home from work
• Going to the dentist on Wednesday
• Retrospective memory is memory of the past

26
Retrieval Processes

• Getting information back out
• Multiple processes can be used to enhance
  retrieval
• Different strategies are used for short term
  storage and long term storage
• Matching the type of processes done during
  encoding with the type of processes done at
  retrieval increases success

27
Retrieval from STM

• Is the search serial or parallel?
• Serial indicates one by one search
• Parallel means all items are processed at once
• Is the search exhaustive or self-terminating?
• Exhaustive indicates that all items in the set
  are examined
• Self-terminating means that after target is found
  the search stops

28
Studying Searching in STM
0

• Saul Sternberg (1967)
• Memorize a set of numbers (6,3,8,2,7)
• Shown a probe digit
• Participant must indicate if the probe was in the
  set
• Reaction time to respond is measured

2
6,3,8,2,7
Yes
29
Sternberg (1967)
0

• 3 critical factors manipulated
• How many items were in the set the participants
  had to memorize
• Whether the probe was in the list
• The probes location in the set

30
Sternberg (1967)

• Possible Result Patterns
• A represents parallel processing
• B illustrates serial processing
• C illustrates exhaustive serial processing
• D illustrates self-terminating serial processing

31
Sternbergs Conclusion

• A serial exhaustive model
• But.
• Corcoran (1971) proposed that a parallel model
  could also explain the pattern found
• Townsend (1971) stated it was mathematically
  impossible to distinguish parallel from serial
• Thus, both models still exist

32
If You Do Not Retrieve from LTM

• Has the memory disappeared?
• or
• Is the memory still there but cannot retrieve it
  (available, but not accessible)?

33
Evidence Supporting Still There Theory Nelson
(1971)

• Paired associate List
• 43-house
• 67-dog
• 38-dress
• 77-sissors
• Cued recall test
• 43- ________
• 67- ________

• Two week delay
• Subjects recalled 75 of items on list
• But focus was on 25 they forgot.

34
Nelson (1971) Critical Manipulation

• If participants forgot 38-dress and
  77-sissors then participants relearned either
  same pairs or changed pairs

The better performance of participants in the
same condition indicate that there was some
memory left for forgotten items. Otherwise
both groups would remember the same amount.
35
What Contributes to Forgetting?

• Decay theory
• Memory is weakened with disuse
• Interference theory
• Proactive old memories interfere with recall of
  new information
• Retroactive new memories interfere with recall
  of old information

36
Retroactive Interference from LTM
0
The experimental group will remembers less
material from the tested list A compared to the
control group Information learned afterwards
interferes with retrieval of List A.
37
Proactive Interference from LTM
The experimental group remembers less material
from the tested list B than the control
group Information previously learned (list A)
interferes with retrieval of List B
38
Your Cheatin Heart
39
Damn that Proactive interference!
40

• Using a similar scenario, what would retroactive
  interference look like?

Melissa?! Whos Melissa?!
41
Flashbulb Memories

• Some researchers propose that events that are
  particularly surprising or arousing will yield
  flashbulb memories
• Where were you when the
• Challenger explosion occurred?
• OJ verdict was read?
• JFK was assassinated?
• Bombing of the twin towers?

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(No Transcript)
43
Flashbulb Memories

• Some research proposes good memory for
• Place where you learned of information
• What you were doing when you heard it
• Where you heard the information from
• Emotions in self and others
• The aftermath

44
Emotion and Memory

• There is a strong relationship (.90) between the
  emotionality and vividness of memory
• This does not mean that the memory is accurate
• Emotional events seem to be less resistant to
  forgetting over time
• Perhaps they are perceived better
• Perhaps we think about them more

45
Flashbulb Memory Results

• Neisser and Harsch (1992)
• Tested immediate memory for Shuttle Explosion,
  and then tested it again 3 years later
• There was little agreement with the two
  memories despite the confidence of the
  participants

46
Encoding Specificity

• Memory is improved when information available at
  encoding is also available at retrieval

47
Encoding Specificity

• Tulving (1983)
• People encode the context with the target
  material
• Physical match (class, diving, smell)
• Emotional match (happy, depressed)
• Understanding match (childhood amnesia, under the
  influence of drugs match)

48
State Dependent Learning
49
State Dependent Learning
50
State Dependent Learning
51
State Dependent learning, why is it important?

• Content addressable memory
• Partial information helps in retrieval
• Adaptive function of memory
• Most relevant memories are most accessible

52
Owens, Bower and Black (1979)
Nancy arrived at the cocktail party. She looked
around the room to see who was there. She went
to talk with her professor. She felt she had to
talk to him but was a little nervous about just
what to say. A group of people started to play
charades. Nancy went over and had some
refreshments. The hors doevres were good but
she was interested in talking to the rest of the
people at the party. After a while, she decided
shed had enough and left the party. Some
participants also heard that passage, but w/ this
theme Nancy woke up feeling sick and she
wondered if she really were pregnant. How could
she tell the professor she had been seeing? And
the money was another problem. Participants were
then asked to recall as much about the story as
they could
53
Owens, Bower and Black (1979) Results

• The theme offered some background information
  and some retrieval cues, which increased recall.
  
• However, the background info also led to more
  intrusions (memory for information not present),
  such as The professor got Nancy pregnant.

54
The 7 Sins of Memory Daniel Schacter

• Transience
• Absent Mindedness
• Blocking
• Misattribution
• Suggestibility
• Bias
• Persistence

Moldy Soda Bi-product!
55
Seven Sins of Memory

• 1) Transience
• - The tendency to lose access to information
  across time, whether through forgetting,
  interference, or retrieval failure

56
Transience

• Occurs with all memory modalities
• Memory fades from the specific to the general or
  gist
• Typical memories are overlaid
• Aberrant memories stand out
• Thanksgiving meal

57
What accounts for Transience?

• Shallow initial encoding
• Reduction in strength of neural connections
• Retroactive interference
• Inappropriate retrieval cues

58
How to mitigate transience

• Elaborate on incoming memories
• Multiple short exposures
• Keep a journal
• Seek unique experience

59
Seven Sins of Memory

• 2) Absent-mindedness - Everyday memory failure in
  remembering information and intended activities,
  probably caused by insufficient attention or
  superficial, automatic processing during encoding.

60
Absent Mindedness

• Keys
• Weapon blindness
• Cell-phones and driving
• Pizza guy
• Mail letter
• Medicine

61
Why does it occur

• Insufficient processing
• Secondary task
• Insufficient environmental cue
• Prospective Memory
• Event based- When x happens y
• Time based- Do x at y time

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How to counteract

• Attend at encoding
• Use environmental cues
• Teapot
• Coffee maker
• Stickies

63
Seven Sins of Memory

• 3) Blocking - Temporary retrieval failure or loss
  of access, such as the tip-of-the-tongue state,
  in either episodic or semantic memory.

64
Pop Quiz! Name that word

• Metal or metal-tipped spear used in a contest of
  distance throwing
• Yarn-died cotton fabric woven in stripes, checks,
  plaids, or solid colors.
• Mild or hot, red condiment often used on deviled
  eggs
• Inscription on a tomb
• Incombustible, chemical-resistant, material used
  for fireproofing
• Navigational instrument used for measuring the
  angular elevation of the sun or a star above the
  horizon
• Heavy, broad-bladed knife or hatchet used
  especially by butchers
• Crystalline sugar occurring naturally in fruits,
  honey, etc.

65
Blocking

• Most common with names or abstract obscure words
• Can often remember
• Gender (Spanish, Italian, French etc.)
• First and Last letters
• Syllables
• Ugly stepsister
• Forget it!

66
Seven Sins of Memory

• 4) Misattribution Remembering a fact correctly
  from past experience but attributing it to
• an incorrect
• source of context.

She looks familiar, but how do I know her...?
67
Misattribution

• John Doe 1 and John Doe 2
• Elliots body shop, Junction City, Kansas
• Robert Kling AKA Timothy McVeigh
• 1 day later
• Army Sereant Michael Hertig and Private Todd
  Bunting

68
Seven Sins of Memory

• 5) Suggestibility - The tendency to incorporate
  information provided by others into your own
  recollection and memory representation.

69
Eyewitness testimony

• Loftus -- subjects watched a video of a car
  accident and then were asked how fast was the
  car going when it
• Smashed 40.8
• Collided 39.3
• Bumped 38.1
• Hit 34.0
• Contacted 31.8

70
Eyewitness testimony

• Leading questions may bias the estimates
• The questions may literally change the way people
  remember the event
• Exp 2 Subjects saw the video and were asked
  Smashed or hitSmashed est'd mph gt Hit estd
  mph

71
Eyewitness testimony

• 1 Week subjects were later asked did you see any
  broken glass?
• Most answered no correctly, but32 said yes if
  asked Smashed14 said yes if asked hit12
  said yes in control group
• The memory of the video and the question were
  fused together into one memory

72
Eyewitness testimony

• As time increased the memory was integrated so
  that subjects couldnt distinguish the event from
  effects of questioning
• Typical eyewitness testimony
• Occurs after long interval from event
• After repeated questioning
• After repeated retellings

73
Eyewitness testimony

• How reliable is eyewitness testimony?
• Difficult to know for sure, but people cant
  distinguish between real events and
  reconstructed memories
• Implications for recovered memories legal
  system
• Should eyewitness testimony by itself be
  considered sufficient to establish guilt?

74
Seven Sins of Memory

• 6) Bias - The tendency for knowledge, beliefs,
  and feelings to distort recollection of previous
  experiences and to affect current and future
  judgments and memory.

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Schemata

• What we have experienced effects what will
  experience
• Stored framework or body of knowledge
• Aids interpretation
• Biased information processing to relate new
  material to what we already know
• Alters way we perceive things
• Individual differences in perception and memory

76
Reproductive vs. Reconstructive

• Reproductive memory -- verbatim reproduction of
  information
• Reconstructive memory -- we remember by combining
  the original material with existing schemata
• If you hear a speech and later tell someone what
  was said, can you report verbatim what was said?

77
Reconstructive Memory

• Omissions - loss of information in recall due to
  schemata often specific, important details are
  missing
• Rationalize or Normalize - tendency to add
  material to make recall more reasonable
• fill in missing pieces
• often fill in with correct info, but may fill in
  faulty info
• Split brain research

78
Seven Sins of Memory

• 7) Persistence - the tendency to remember facts
  or events, including traumatic memories, that one
  would rather forget, that is, failure to forget
  because of intrusive recollections and rumination.

79
Persistence

• Hot Memories- charged with emotion
• Positive and Negative intrusions
• Amygdala
• Norepinepherine-Yohimbine!

80
Vices or Virtues?

• Transience
• Absent Mindedness
• Blocking
• Misattribution
• Suggestibility
• Bias
• Persistence

81
The 7 Sins of Memory Daniel Schacter

• Transience
• Absent Mindedness
• Blocking
• Misattribution
• Suggestibility
• Bias
• Persistence

Moldy Soda Bi-product!