Chapter 5: Reading and Evaluating Arguments

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Chapter 5 Reading and Evaluating Arguments

• Academic Reading
• By Kathleen T. McWhorter
• (4th Edition)

Powerpoint by Gretchen Starks-Martin St. Cloud
State University, Minnesota
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Learning Objectives

• To recognize the elements of an argument
• To recognize types of arguments
• To evaluate arguments
• To recognize errors in logical reasoning

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An argument presents logical reasons and
evidence to support a viewpoint
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Parts of an Argument

• ISSUE - problem or controversy about which people
  disagree
• CLAIM - the position on the issue
• SUPPORT - reasons and evidence that the claim is
  reasonable and should be accepted
• REFUTATION - opposing viewpoints

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Types of Claims

• CLAIM OF FACT - statement that can be proven or
  verified by observation or research
• Within ten years, destruction
  of rain forests will cause
  hundreds of plant and animal species to
  become extinct.

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Types of Claims

• CLAIM OF VALUE - states that one thing or idea is
  better or more desirable than another.
• Requiring community service in
  high school will produce more community-aware
  graduates.

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Types of Claims

• CLAIM OF POLICY - suggests what should or ought
  to be done to solve a problem.
• To reduce school violence, more gun and metal
  detectors should be installed in public schools.

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Types of Support

• REASON - a general statement that supports a
  claim.
• EVIDENCE - consists of facts, statistics,
  experiences, comparisons, and examples that show
  why the claim is valid.
• EMOTIONAL APPEALS - ideas that are targeted
  toward needs or values that readers are likely to
  care about.

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Inductive and Deductive Arguments

• INDUCTIVE - reaches a general conclusion from
  observed specifics.
• By observing the performance of a large number
  of athletes, you could conclude that athletes
  possess physical stamina.

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Inductive and Deductive Arguments

• DEDUCTIVE - begins with a major premise and moves
  toward a more specific statement or minor
  premise.
• Athletes possess physical stamina. Because
  Anthony is an athlete, he must possess physical
  stamina.

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Strategies for Reading an Argument

• What does the title suggest? Preview!
• Who is the author, and what are his or her
  qualifications?
• What is the date of publication?
• What do I already know about the issue?

Think Before You Read
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Strategies for Reading an Argument

• Read once for an initial impression.
• Read the argument several more times.
• Annotate as you read.
• Highlight key terms.
• Diagram or map to analyze structure.

Read Actively
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Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

• Evaluate Types of Evidence - Is it sufficient to
  support the claim?
• Personal Experience - may be biased, so do not
  accept it
• Examples - should not be used by themselves

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Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

• Statistics - can be misused, manipulated or
  misinterpreted.
• Comparisons and Analogies - reliability depends
  on how closely they correspond to the situation.
• Relevancy and Sufficiency of Evidence - is there
  enough of the right kind to support the claim?

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Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

• Definition of Terms - should be carefully defined
  and used consistently
• Cause-Effect Relationships - evidence that the
  relationship exists should be present
• Implied or Stated Value System - are they
  consistent with your personal value system?

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Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

• Recognizing and Refuting Opposing Viewpoints
• Question the accuracy, relevancy or sufficiency
  of the opponents evidence.
• Does the author address opposing viewpoints
  clearly and fairly?
• Does the author refute the opposing viewpoint
  with logic and relevant evidence?

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Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

• Unfair Emotional Appeals
• Emotionally Charged or Biased Language
• False Authority
• athletes endorsing underwear
• movie stars selling shampoo
• Association
• a car being named a Cougar to remind you of a
  sleek animal
• a cigarette advertisement featuring a scenic
  waterfall

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Strategies for Evaluating Arguments

• Unfair Emotional Appeals
• Appeal to Common Folk
• an ad showing a product being used in an average
  household
• a politician suggesting he is like everyone else
• Ad Hominem - attack on the person rather than
  his/her viewpoint
• Join the Crowd Appeal or Bandwagon

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What emotional appeal is being used?

• Come early so you wont have to stand in line
  because everyone knows you can make a deal with
  Dave and save.
• As a test pilot, Susan Gibbs knows performance.
  Thats why I drive a Mustang, she says.
• Olsons pizzas are lower in fat and calories.
  Other pizza makers dont care about your health.

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Emotional appeals continued

• We can work magic with your children, says
  Eileen of Eileens Day Care. Call upon us, and
  your children will be happy you did.
• Liberty Bell Airlines flies anywhere in this
  great land, from sea to shining sea.
• As a young man, Candidate Alan Wilson learned
  what it means to work hard by spending long hours
  lifting boxes and sweeping floors working in a
  department store.

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Errors in Logical Reasoningcommonly called
logical fallaciesinvalidate the argument or
render argument flawed

• Circular Reasoning/Begging the Question
• Female police officers should not be sent to
  crime scenes because apprehending criminals is a
  mans job.
• Hasty Generalization - conclusion derived from
  insufficient evidence
• Because one apple is sour,
  all of them in the bowl must
  be sour.

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Errors in Logical Reasoning

• Non Sequitur (It Does Not Follow)
• Because my doctor is young, Im
  sure shell be a good doctor.
• False Cause
• Because I opened the umbrella when I tripped on
  the sidewalk, the umbrella must have caused me to
  trip.
• Either-Or Fallacy
• Because of the violence, TV must be either
  allowed or banned.

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For Each Argument

• Identify the claim.
• Outline the reasons to support the claim.
• What types of evidence are used?
• Evaluate the adequacy and sufficiency of the
  evidence.
• What emotional appeals are used?
• Does the author recognize or refute counter
  arguments?

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Comparing the Arguments

• Compare the types of evidence used.
• Which argument did you find more convincing?
  Why?
• What further information would be useful in
  assessing the issue?

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Read the articles on education and complete the
activities following each selection.

• School Boards Doing Little to Close Gap Between
  Whites, Minorities
• School Vouchers The Wrong Choice for Public
  Education