Literature Review and Ethical Issues

1
Literature Review and Ethical Issues

• Literature Review
• Ethical Behavior
• The Nuremberg Code
• IRB

2
What is a Literature Review?

• What is known about the subject?
• Are there any gaps in the knowledge of the
  subject?
• Have areas of further study been identified by
  other researchers that you may want to consider?
• Is there consensus about the topic?

3
What is a Literature Review?

• What methods or problems were identified by
  others studying in the field and how might they
  impact your research?
• What is the current status of research in this
  area?
• What sources of information or data were
  identified that might be useful to you?

4
How to do a literature search?

• Defining the topic
• In order to begin your literature review you must
  first define your research question.
• What is the purpose?  What does it mean?  What
  are the key words?
• Are there other words which could be used, such
  as synonyms, variations in spelling? 

5
How to do a literature search?

• Compiling a list of keywords
• Think about both general terms and very specific
  terms for broadening and narrowing your search.
• The keyword or phrase is the basic unit of any
  search. 
• The use of an index and/or thesaurus is also
  advisable to establish the useful terms.        

6
How to do a literature search?

• Identifying Resources
• Information is available in a number of formats
• Books
• Journals
• Conference Papers
• Dissertations
• Internet (http//scholar.google.com)
• Electronic Databases

7
Jstor at http//www.jstor.org/
8
Ethical behavior (definition)

• Behavior is ethical insofar as it follows the
  rules that have been specifically oriented to the
  welfare of the larger society and not to the
  self-interest of the professional
• To act unethically is to act unprofessionally

9
Ethical research

• There's no such thing as perfectly ethical
  research
• In fact, all research is inherently unethical to
  some degree
• This is because you're using the most powerful
  tools science has to offer in getting at truth or
  some needed change, and with your results,
  somebody's going to be proven wrong or lose out
  in the power struggle

10
Ethical research

• There's also no such thing as totally harmless
  research
• Somebody, usually your subjects, is going to be
  harmed, either psychologically, socially,
  physically, or economically
• Their privacy is invaded to get any useful
  information (why do research on the obvious,
  surface characteristics of people?), and this is
  psychological harm

11
Social Harm

• Socially and physically, we are harming them by
  taking up their time with our silly research
• Economically, we are exploiting them by not
  paying them for their contribution
• We, the researchers, will go on and become famous
  writing a book about them, but they will always
  remain lowly research subjects
• Ethically, research is just a whole awkward and
  asymmetrical situation overall.

12
Political Regulation of Research

• Historically, governments have had to put serious
  restrictions on researchers. In fact, the origin
  of codes of research ethics can be traced to the
  NUREMBERG CODE, a list of rules established by a
  military tribunal on Nazi war crimes during World
  War II. 

13
The Nuremberg Code

• Voluntary consent
• Fruitful results for the good of society
• Anticipated results will justify the performance
  of experiment
• Avoid all unnecessary physical or mental
  suffering
• No research should be conducted where there is a
  reason to believe that death or disabling injury
  will occur
• The degree of risk to be taken should never
  exceed that determined by the humanitarian
  importance of the problem to be solved

14
The Nuremberg Code

• Proper preparation should be made-protect the
  research subjects against injure, or death
• Research should be conducted only by
  scientifically qualified persons
• During research the subjects should be at liberty
  to bring the research to the end
• Research must be ready to terminate the research
  at any stage if there is possibility to hurt
  research subjects

15
IRB

• Data Anonymous _ Confidential __
  Intentionally identified___
• If anonymous or confidential, describe how
  anonymity or confidentiality will be maintained
  (e.g., coded to a master list and separated from
  data, locked cabinet, office, restricted
  computer, etc.). List all sites where data might
  be stored.

16
IRB

• Who will have access to the data? Please be
  specific_____________
• Will video tapes ___ audio tapes ___ photographs
  ___ be taken?
• If yes, where will tapes or photographs be
  stored?
• When will all research materials be destroyed?

17
IRB

• How will subjects be selected or recruited and
  how will subjects be approached (or contacted)?
• Describe any potential risks to the subjects, and
  describe how you will minimize these risks.
  These include stress, discomfort, social risks
  (e.g., embarrassment), legal risks, invasion of
  privacy, and side effects

18
Social Science Experiments

• Social research might also put subjects at risk
• Three social scientific studies are cited most
  often
• Laud Humphreys Tearoom Trade (1970)
• Stanley Milgrams Obedience to Authority (1974)
• Philip Zimbardos simulated prison experiment
  (1972-1974)

19
Laud Humphreys and the Tearoom Sex Study

• He stationed himself in "tearooms" and offered to
  serve as "watchqueen"
• He was able to gain the confidence of some of the
  men he observed, disclose his role as scientist,
  and persuade them to tell him about the rest of
  their lives and about their motives
• Humphreys secretly recorded the license numbers
  of their cars
• A year later and carefully disguised, Humphreys
  appeared at their homes claiming to be a
  health-service interviewer and interviewed them
  about their marital status, race, job, and so on.

20
Humphreys' findings destroy many stereotypes

• 54 of his subjects were married and living with
  their wives
• 38 were neither bisexual nor homosexual they
  were men whose marriages were marked with tension
• 24 were clearly bisexual, happily married, well
  educated, economically quite successful, and
  exemplary members of their community
• Another 24 were single and were covert
  homosexuals
• Only 14 of Humphreys' subjects were members of
  the gay community and were interested in
  primarily homosexual relationships

21
Stanley Milgrams Obedience to Authority

• Psychologist at Yale University, conducted a
  study focusing on the conflict between obedience
  to authority and personal conscience
• Germans are different
• Character flaw Readiness to obey authority
  without question, no matter what outrageous acts
  authority commands
• Everything in the experiment was staged except
  one person-subject
• Milgram changed a lot in his initial script
  because people were obeying too much

22
Experiment

• Learner is taken to a room where he is
  strapped in a chair to prevent movement and an
  electrode is placed on his arm. The "teacher" is
  instructed to read a list of two word pairs and
  ask the "learner" to read them back. If
  "learner" gets the answer wrong, the "teacher" is
  supposed to shock the "learner" starting at 15
  volts

23
Experiment

• The generator has 30 switches ranging from
  "slight shock" to "danger severe shock The
  final two switches are labeled "XXX
• The "teacher" automatically is supposed to
  increase the shock each time the "learner" misses
  a word in the list. The "learner" was an actor
  who was never actually harmed

24
Results

• Two-thirds of this study participants fall into
  the category of obedient' subjects, and that
  they represent ordinary people drawn from the
  working, managerial, and professional classes
• 65 of all of the "teachers" punished the
  "learners" to the maximum 450 volts
• No subject stopped before reaching 300 volts

25
Results

• The theory that only the most severe monsters on
  the sadistic fringe of society would submit to
  such cruelty is disclaimed

26
Ethical issues of Milgrams experiment

• Milgram made a judgment about there is no
  possible psychological damage to the subjects
• Milgram interviewed subjects afterwards
• 83 said they were glad to participate
• 1.3 said they were sorry
• However, Milgram could not know that only 1.3
  would be sorry

27
Zimbardos simulated prison experiment

• Subjects males, undergraduate, paid volunteers
• Role of either guard or prisoner
• Mock prison was constructed in the basement of
  Stanford university
• Experiment was to have lasted for two weeks but
  Zimbardo cancelled the study after 6 days because
  of possible harm

28
What went wrong?

• Individuals became carried away with their roles
• Guards behaved aggressively and dehumanizing
  toward prisoners
• Prisoners behaved ether passively or were hostile
• Subjects did consent to participate in the study,
  but they did not expect the consequences