Organization Theory

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Organization Theory

• Building a Model of Empowerment Practice

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The role of theories

• Theories describe the distribution of power
  resources in organizations, how organizations
  function, how people interact in organizations,
  and how organization systems maintain themselves.
• Theories must be empirically tested and verified.
• Independent and dependent variables must be
  identified in order to test a theory.
• Therefore theories contain assumptions about
  cause and effect relationships

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Theories can either be broad and abstract and
pertaining to general patterns in society or
describe patterns that occur in specific
situations
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The effect aspect of cause and effect
relationships are outcomes, things that occur
because of specific events or actions.
Consequently, they suggest specific actions or
skills that can be used by social workers to
produce results.
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General and More Specific TheoriesPractice
Activities in Model(Intervention or
Cause)Outcomes or Effects
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In social work, we use theory to define a
specific set of actions or interventions that can
be used to produce outcomes. We may also apply
aspects of theories to certain situations.
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For example, power-dependency theory tells us
that resource donors acquire power by
transferring money and goods to people that cant
reciprocate. This suggests that nonprofit
organizations should not accept funds from a
single large donor if they want to be
independent. This theory can also be applied to
relationships between clients who receive free
services and the organizations. Unless the client
has alternative options for service, can go
without the service, can exchange services with
the organization or use power to pressure the
organization, they will be dependent upon and
obligated to the organization!
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In social work, we differentiate between
perspectives, theories, and models

• A perspective is an approach to practice that
  involves basic value assumptions about best
  practices. For example, the strengths perspective
  tells us to look at the individuals,
  communitys, or organizations strengths rather
  than deficits.
• Perspectives give us only very general
  information about the outcomes specific actions
  will produce.
• A theory contains assumptions about cause and
  effect relationships that have been established
  as valid through empirical testing. Theories help
  us link specific actions or interventions with
  specific outcomes.
• Practice models provide detailed frameworks for
  understanding social problems and developing
  responses to those problems. Models include, a
  theoretical framework, an intervention approach,
  and probable outcomes associated with this
  approach.

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Historical overview of organizational theory

• Weber developed organizational theories in
  early part of the 20th century based on German
  models of public organizations. Ideal
  organizations had organizational structures,
  clearly defined supervisory structures, and
  standardization of tasks. Decision-making was to
  be rational (objective) and not based on
  political motives.
• Taylor developed Scientific Management. This
  method was to be used by managers find the most
  efficient or scientific method for breaking down
  work into concrete tasks that could be assigned
  to individual workers. Efficient performance was
  expected to maximize work output (Scott, 1987).
  Often efficiency experts were brought in to
  industrial plants to conduct time and motion
  studies to find the best allocation of staff
  resources and skill assignments

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Basic assumptions of the systems approach are
incorporated into many theories about how
organizations work

• Organizational systems change constantly through
  interaction and exchange with their environments.
• Effective organizational systems are highly open
  but boundaries between the organizational
  system and its external environment are well
  defined.
• Organizational systems may be orderly and
  predictable but may also be disorderly and
  unpredictable.
• Order may rest on coercion and domination as well
  as consensus and cooperation.
• Places equal emphasis on conflict and change as
  order and stability.

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Human Relations Theory

• Originates from experiments conducted on plant
  works at an ATT factory in Chicago
• (the Hawthorne effect).
• The researchers found, among other things that
  people simply react and change their behavior in
  response to being observed.
• Other major findings were that organizations have
  unique cultures influenced by the values of
  participants and the fact that people tend to
  form groups. Consequently, most workplaces
  contain informal leaders who may influence the
  behavior of other workers.
• These leaders and the values shared by group
  members influence how workers perform.
• Mayo, the primary researcher, based his theory on
  the assumption that managers should attempt to
  use these group norms to influence and motivate
  workers.
• He also argued that workers need to feel that
  they have a certain amount of control over their
  own work. They should also be given awards for
  performance. He also felt that workers perform
  better in teams or groups.

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Other theories focus on

• Organization structure.
• Organization culture and groups of people
  interacting in organizations.
• How organizations adapt to external demands.
• How power is achieved and used in organizations.

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In social work

• Strengths and Systems Approaches are
  Perspectives.
• The systems perspective can be used to create a
  model of the different component parts of
  organizations and their environments.
• Empowerment is a perspective, is a distinct model
  of practice, and is a theory in development (some
  empirical testing and identification of specific
  types of outcomes).

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Models of Organizational Practice Include

• Theory X. Control, discipline, and sanctions are
  needed to force people to do their work.
• Theory Y. Management can take action so that
  employees will become motivated to do their work.
  All workers are to be regarded as goal-oriented
  and as having potential to further develop their
  own talents and skills.
• Contingency Theory Employees are motivated by
  different things, but need to achieve a sense of
  competency. Therefore the manager must provide
  appropriate incentives to motivate individual
  employees.
• Human Relations Approach. To maximize
  performance, staff members need autonomy,
  involvement in management decisions, and
  appropriate rewards. People react as group
  members.
• Theory Z focuses on quality of production,
  collective accountability and loyalty. Decisions
  are made by consensus.
• Participatory Management Staff involvement in
  organizational decision-making increases job
  satisfaction and productivity decreases staff
  turnover.
• Feminist Management - Fights oppression creates
  management partnerships among participants
  assumes women manage differently then men,
  focusing on interpersonal relationships rather
  than traditional approaches to power authority.
  Decisions are made by consensus cooperation.
• Total Quality Management Management produces an
  organizational culture based on product quality,
  consumer satisfaction, standardization of
  production, and employee empowerment.

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Empowerment Model in Social Work Practice
Social Worker Constituent Organization
Role Facilitator Change Agent Resource Provider
Practice Activity Information Forms Self-Help Groups Leadership Training Self-Advocacy Group Member Decision-maker Political Activist Evaluator
Outcomes Worker Self- Efficacy Policy Change New Skills Self-Efficacy Political Power Constituents Political Power Better Service

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Empowerment Model in Organizations
Social Worker Constituent Organization
Role Facilitator Change Agent Decision-maker Provides Opportunities for Decision-making
Process/ Tasks Provides Information Provides Leaderships and Skills Training Facilitates Self-help Groups Raises Critical Consciousness Identifies Informal Networks Self-Advocacy Group Member Board Member Program Planner Researcher Lobbyist Political Activist Establishes Strong Networks Provides Resources Staff Provides Support for Groups Links Local Networks to Institutions Provides Effective Services Facilitates Political Activism
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Empowerment Outcomes
Social Worker Constituent Organization
Role Facilitator Change Agent Decision-maker Provides Opportunities for Decision-making
Outcomes Increases Own Skills Personal Empowerment Delivers Effective Services Power to Change organization Political Activist Increase Own Skills Personal Empowerment Acquires Resources Power to Change Organization Participation in Social/Political Action Recruits Skilled Constituents/ Volunteers Better Response to Client Needs Improves Service Effectiveness/ Utilization Political Power
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Theoretical Components of Empowerment Model

• Systems and Ecological Approaches (practice
  should occur at multiple levels personal,
  inter-personal, and political). We also should be
  knowledgeable about how different systems
  interact and/or compete with one another.
• Human relations/Participatory Management. Staff
  should be involved in organization
  decision-making. To motivate workers, managers
  must provide opportunities, training, and
  incentives to help workers obtain a sense of
  competence.
• Contingency Theory. Ecological Perspective
  social problems occur when individuals interact
  with the social environment. There is continuing
  competition for resources.
• Conflict Theory Various social groups in
  society and within the organization compete for
  resources. Allocation of services is often
  determined by perceptions of in-group versus
  out-group status of recipients. Members of
  oppressed groups should acquire power in order to
  gain resources and civil rights.
• Feminist Theory organizations should minimize
  the social distance between administrators,
  staff, and clients. All should be partners in
  decision-making.
• Transformative model/Social constructivist
  paradigm-Service consumers should be equal
  partners with staff in decision-making process.
  Service users/consumers reduce own feelings of
  oppression and low self-esteem by engaging with
  the organization in social action.
• Power-dependency Theory. Clients who receive free
  services are dependent upon or can controlled by
  the organization. Therefore service delivery
  should incorporate the principle of reciprocity
  (service users contribute something back to the
  organization). The organization should create
  structures that help service users obtain power.
• Political-economy Theory. People inside the
  organization represent a variety of different
  constituency groups with different amounts of
  power. People within the organization are
  influenced by the organizations external
  environment. The manager must reconcile
  internal/external demands on the organization.
  One way to do this is for the organization and
  its members to develop sources of political
  power.
• Total Quality Management. Work teams develop
  quality indicators and work to achieve these
  goals. This method results in the psychological
  empowerment of workers and improvements in
  service quality.

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Introduction to Start-up.com Understanding
Organization Culture

• Values and perspectives of organization
  participants influence how organizations
  function.
• The organizations mission and the philosophy of
  managers and other decision-makers influence what
  the organization can do.
• Participants bring their own experiences and ways
  of interacting into the organization.
• Organization structure and technology also
  influence how the organization operates and the
  influence the organization has on its members.