APA Style and Scholarly Writing

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APA Style and Scholarly Writing

• Jim Messina, Ph.D.

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Objectives of Presentation

• Rationale for utilization of APA style in
  professional and research writing
• What are the components of the APA style as
  presented in the Publication Manual of the
  American Psychological Association, Fifth
  Edition, 2001
• Refresh what you already know about APA style
• Identify what you need to work on to improve your
  use of the APA style
• Tips on how to Improve your scholarly writing

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OVERVIEW OF APA STYLE
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Why is APA Style Writing Important

• Professionally and ethically we are charged with
  using research to further the counseling
  profession
• CACREP encourages Counselor Education Programs to
  use research to improve counseling effectiveness
  (Lambie, et al, 2008)
• The clinical focus today in the real world is on
  Evidenced Based Practices which implies
  empirically validated researched ways of
  providing clinical services we all are called
  upon to contribute to this building body of
  knowledge
• An essential part of scholarship is to learn to
  do good research and to write about it in such a
  way that it is publishable
• Knowing the APA Style of Writing Research
  Articles will be a life long competency you as a
  Counselor Educator and Counseling Professional
  will always want to grow in

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So What Does APA Publication Manual (APA, 2001)
Cover?

• Content and Organization of a Manuscript
• Expressing Ideas and Reducing Bias in Language
• APA Editorial Style - Detailed
• Reference Lists - Detailed
• Manuscript Preparation for Papers to be Submitted
  for Publication
• Material other than Journal Articles
• Manuscript Acceptance and Production
• APA. (2001). Publication Manual of the
  American Psychological Association. Washington,
  D.C American Psychological Association

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1. Content and Organization

• Quality of Content, p. 4
• Designing and Reporting Research, p. 5
• Evaluating Content, p. 5
• Characteristics of Articles, p. 6
• Authorship, p. 6
• Types of Articles, p. 7
• Length, Headings, and Tone, p. 9
• Parts of a Manuscript, p. 10
• Quality of Presentation, p. 29
• Page Numbers in the Publication Manual of the
  American Psychological Association, Fifth
  Edition, 2001

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Parts of a Manuscript, p. 10

• Title Page, p. 10
• Abstract, p. 12
• Introduction, p. 15
• Method, p. 17
• Results, p. 20
• Discussion, p. 26
• Multiple Experiments, p. 27
• References, p. 28
• Appendix, p. 28
• Authors Notes, p. 29

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2. Expressing Ideas and Reducing Bias in Language

• Writing Style, p. 31
• Grammar, p. 40
• Guidelines to reduce bias in language, p. 61

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Writing Style, p. 31

• Orderly Presentation of Ideas, p. 32
• Smoothness of Expression, p. 34
• Economy of Expression, p. 34
• Precision and Clarity, p. 36
• Strategies for Improving Writing Styles, p. 40

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Grammar, p. 40

• Verbs, p. 41
• Agreement of Subject and Verb, p. 44
• Pronouns, p. 47
• Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers and Use of
  Adverbs, p. 50
• Relative Pronouns and Subordinate Conjunctions,
  p. 54
• Parallel Construction, p. 57
• Linguistic Devices, p. 61

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Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language, p. 61

• Guideline 1 Describe at the appropriate level of
  specificity, p. 62
• Guideline 2 Be sensitive to labels, p. 63
• Guideline 3 Acknowledge participation, p. 65
• In addition
• Gender, p. 66
• Sexual Orientation, p. 67
• Racial and Ethnic Identity, p. 67
• Disabilities, p. 69
• Age, p. 69

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3. APA Editorial Style

• Punctuation, p. 78
• Spelling, p. 89
• Capitalization, p. 94
• Italics, p. 100 Italicizing Words
• Abbreviations, p. 103
• Headings and Series, p. 111
• Quotations, p. 117
• Numbers, p. 122
• Metrication, p. 130
• Statistical and Mathematical Copy, p. 136
• Tables, p. 147
• Figures, p. 176
• Footnotes and Notes, p. 202
• Appendixes 205
• Reference Citations in Text, p. 207

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Punctuation, p. 78

• Period, p. 78
• Comma, p. 78
• Semicolons, p. 80
• Colon, p. 80
• Dash, p. 81
• Quotation Marks, p. 81
• Parentheses, p. 84
• Brackets, p. 86
• Slash, p. 87

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Spelling, p. 89

• Preferred Spelling, p. 89
• Hyphenation, p. 89

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Capitalization, p. 94

• Words Beginning a Sentence, p. 94
• Major Words in Titles and Heading, p. 95
• Proper Nouns and Trade Names, p. 96
• Nouns Followed by Numerals or Letters, p. 97
• Titles of Tests, p. 98
• Names of Conditions or Groups in Experiments, p.
  99
• Names of Factors, Variables and Effects, p. 99

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Abbreviations, p. 103

• Use of Abbreviations, p. 103
• Explanation of Abbreviations, p. 104
• Abbreviations Accepted as Words, p. 105
• Abbreviations Used Often in APA Journals, p. 105
• Latin Abbreviations, p. 106
• Scientific Abbreviations, p. 106
• Other Abbreviations, p. 109
• Use of Periods with Abbreviations, p. 110
• Abbreviations Beginning a Sentence, p. 111

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Headings and Series, p. 111

• Organizing a Manuscript with Headings, p. 111
• Levels of Headings, p. 113
• Level 1 Centered Uppercase Lowercase Heading
• Level 2 Centered, Italicized, Uppercase
  Lowercase Heading
• Level 3 Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase
  Lowercase Side Heading
• Level 4 Indented, italicized, lowercase
  paragraph heading ending with a period.
• Level 5 CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING
• Selecting the Levels of Headings, p. 114
• Seriation, p. 115

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Quotations, p. 117

• Quotations of Sources, p. 117
• Accuracy, p. 118
• Double or Single Quotation Marks, p. 119
• Changes From the Source Requiring No Explanation,
  p. 119
• Changes from the Source Requiring Explanation, p.
  119
• Citations of the Source, p. 120
• Permission to Quote, p. 121

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Numbers, p. 122

• Numbers Expressed in Figures, p. 122
• Numbers Expressed in Words, p. 125
• Combining Figures and Words to Express Numbers,
  p. 127
• Ordinal Numbers, p. 128
• Decimal Fractions, p. 128
• Roman Numerals, p. 129
• Commas in Numbers, p. 129
• Plurals in Numbers, p. 130

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Metrication, p. 130

• Policy on Metrication, p. 130
• Style for Metric Units, p. 141
• Metric Tables, p. 136

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Statistical and Mathematical Copy, p. 136

• Selecting the Method of Analysis and Retaining
  Data, p. 137
• Selecting Effective Presentation, p. 137
• References for Statistics, p. 137
• Formulas, p. 138
• Statistics in Text, p. 138
• Statistical Symbols, p. 139
• Spacing, Alignment, and Punctuation, p. 145
• Equations in Text, p. 146
• Displayed Equations, p. 146

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Tables, p. 147

• Tabular Versus Textual Presentation, p. 147
• Relation of Tables and Text, p. 154
• Relation Between Tables, p. 155
• Table Numbers, p. 155
• Headings, p. 156
• Body of a Table, p. 159
• Presenting Data in Specific Types of Tables, p.
  160
• Notes to a Table, p. 170
• Ruling of Tables, p. 173
• Size of Tables, p. 174
• Tables From Another Source, p. 174
• Table Checklist, p. 175

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Figures, p. 176

• Deciding to Use Figures, p. 176
• Standards for Figures, p. 177
• Types of Figures, p. 177
• Line Art Versus Halftone, p. 187
• Overall Size and Proportion, p. 188
• Preparation of Figures, p. 188
• Creating Graphs, p. 195
• Using Photographs, p. 197
• Identifying and Citing Figures, p. 198
• Figure Legend and Captions, p. 199
• Submitting Figures, p. 200
• Figure Checklist, p. 201

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Footnotes and Notes, p. 202

• Footnotes in Text, p. 202
• Notes to Tables, p. 203
• Author Note, p. 2-3

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Appendixes, p. 205

• Identifying and Citing Appendixes, p. 205
• Body and Heading, p. 206
• Tables as Appendixes, p. 206
• Tests and Questionnaires, p. 206

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Reference Citations in Text, p. 207

• One Work by One Author, p. 207
• One Work by Multiple Authors, p. 208
• Groups as Authors, p. 209
• Works With No Author (Including Legal Materials)
  or With an Anonymous Author, p. 210
• Authors with the Same Surname, p. 211
• Two or More Works Within the Same Parentheses, p.
  212
• Classical Works, p. 213
• Specific Parts of a Source, p. 213
• Personal Communications, p. 214
• Citations in Parenthetical Material, p. 214

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4. Reference List

• Agreement of Text and Reference List, p. 215
• Construction of an Accurate and Complete
  Reference List, p. 216
• APA Style, p. 216
• Order of References in the Referenced List, p.
  219
• References Included in a Meta-Analysis, p. 222
• Introduction to APA Reference Style, p. 222
• General Forms, p. 223
• Authors, p. 224
• Publication Date, p. 225
• Title of Article or Chapter, p. 226
• Title of Work and Publication Information
  Periodicals, p. 227
• Title of Work Nonperiodicals, p. 228
• Title of Work Part of a Nonperiodical (Book
  Chapter), p. 229
• Publication Information Nonperiodical, p. 230
• Retrieval Information Electronic Sources (APA
  Website)
• Elements and Examples of References in APA Style,
  p. 231

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Elements and Examples of References in APA Style,
p. 231

• Periodicals, p. 239
• Books, Brochures, and Book Chapters, p. 248
• Technical and Research Reports, p. 255
• Proceedings of Meeting and Symposiums, p. 259
• Doctoral Dissertation and Masters Theses, p. 260
• Unpublished Work and Publications of Limited
  Circulation, p. 263
• Reviews, p. 264
• Audiovisual Media, p. 266
• Electronic Media, see APA website

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What it Takes to Write a Scholarly Paper
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What are the Basic Components of Scholarly Work

• Research review an analysis and synthesis of
  most relevant, up to date, and informative
  information about a topic
• Use of APA Writing Guidelines
• Appropriate Citations
• Structural Organization

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Tips for Appropriate Citations

• Support your point of view taken with appropriate
  citations
• Use only most current references less than 10
  years old and preferably 5 or less years old
• Reference only academic rigorous peer-reviewed
  academic journals
• Avoid popular press, textbooks, and secondary
  sources
• All sources need to be appropriately referenced
• Use direct quotations sparingly
• Only last name of author and year for citations
  within the text of the paper
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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Organizationof Research Paper

• Title Page, p. 10
• Abstract, p. 12
• Introduction, p. 15
• Rationale, p. 17
• Review of the Literature-Background, p. 16
• Method-Research, p. 17
• Participants or Sample Studied, p. 18
• Measures Instrumentation or variables, p.
• Procedure and Design Research Design and Data
  Analysis, p. 19
• Results Findings, p. 20
• Discussion, p. 26
• Conclusion
• Limitations
• Implications
• References, p. 28
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)
• Page Numbers in the Publication Manual of the
  American Psychological Association, Fifth
  Edition, 2001

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Tips on Writing an Abstract, p.12

• One single paragraph only in length
• No more than 120 words
• Clear and concise summary of the paper
• Clearly and concisely describes the purpose of
  the paper, findings and implications
• Always written in the active voice
• Clear and understandable and able to stand alone
  as the summary of the work contained in the paper
• Must include as many descriptive words as
  possible which assist future readers to find the
  paper when doing a keyword search
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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Introductionof Paper, p.15

• Sets the stage orients reader to central
  objectives
• Provides a Statement of Purpose
• Emphasizes the writers views of topic
• Uses citations of literature to support claims in
  paper
• Must contain
• Orientation to specific problem addressed in
  paper
• Statement of purpose of the paper
• Summative review of pertinent literature
• Theoretical implications
• Central variables and concepts clarified and
  defined
• Rationale for paper
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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Rationale,p. 17

• Clearly states the importance of the problem to
  be addressed in the paper
• Provides justification for importance of the
  value of the findings contained in the paper
• Built on the relationship between prior empirical
  results and theory that lead to a critical
  unanswered research question to be address in the
  paper
• Prevalence and severity of a problem along with
  potential consequences provide argument to
  support the rationale for the research or
  investigation discussed in the paper
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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Literature Review, p. 16

• Organizational focal point of paper giving reader
  a focal point
• Contains pertinent literature and not necessarily
  an exhaustive review
• Extensive review in Dissertation
• Each piece reviewed must be referenced and cited
  both in the body of the paper as well as in the
  Reference section
• If there is a item in Reference section it must
  be cited within the body of the paper
• Review typically presents relevant information
  including the findings and conclusions but
  sometimes needs to include methodology and design
  features
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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Rules for Review of Literature

• Must remain opinion free
• Should be written in past tense or present
  perfect
• Support or challenge a theory or hypothesis,
  never prove one
• Use language when reporting other studies as
  found, reported, demonstrated, concluded,
  suggested, indicated
• Logically, rationally, and clearly support the
  purpose of the research or project described in
  paper through this review
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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DiscussionSection, p. 26

• Summarizes the findings
• Brings closure to the purpose of stated in
  introduction
• Evaluates, qualifies, offers interpretations and
  draws inferences from research findings and/or
  literature reviewed
• Should include
• Discussion if the results or literature reviewed
  answered the research question
• Provide logical explanation of the studys
  findings and/or findings in literature reviewed
• Statement of potential limitations of the study
• Possible implications for the field
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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Conclusion

• Answers questions What conclusions can be
  reached from the results?
• Writer functions more independently and
  creatively
• Writer reflects on possible explanation for the
  findings
• Writer ties interpretation or plausible
  relationship of findings to literature reviewed
• If findings are unexpected
• Introduce new literature to support
  interpretation of findings
• Speculate on reasonable explanations for findings
  based on research design, sampling, psychometric
  limitations or other aspects of the study
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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Limitations

• Writer recognizes and states that
• There are no perfect studies
• All studies have limitations
• There are possible limitations and alternative
  ways of interpreting the findings of the study
  despite limitations
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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Implications

• Explains and clarifies the significance of the
  findings
• Provides explanation and clarification of
  significance of the findings
• Provides the practical and pragmatic meaning of
  the findings of the study or work of the paper
• Provides a tie into implications for ones
  professional field from the results of the study
• Written in the present tense
• Can include recommendation for future research
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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References,p. 28

• All sources cited in paper must be included in
  the References
• Reference provides the background information on
  sources cited in body of paper
• Ensure congruence between works cited in paper
  and those placed in References
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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Prevalent Writing Errors

• Poor organization and continuity
• Lack of sufficient support for statements and
  claims made in paper with appropriate and
  accurate citations and references
• Syntax, grammar, and punctuation problems
• Lack of connection between the implications for
  the field and the research and theory reviewed
  and/or research results
• (Lambie, et al., 2008, p. 21.)

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Appropriate use of Citations and Quotes

• It is quoted in Lambie, et al. (2008)
• It is best to use direct quotations in moderation
• Writings that analyze and effectively incorporate
  information from multiple sources are more
  interesting than papers that simply paraphrase o
  quote information and place citations at the end
  of each paragraph.
• The writers task is to include both personal
  observations and viewpoint
• The writer is responsible for accurately quoting
  or paraphrasing the work of others

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Seven Reasons for Using Quotations

• Detail out specifically on well phrased key
  concepts contained in a reference source
• Demonstrate what others say about your topic
  area
• Experts
• People involved in issue
• General public
• Point out importance of key concepts and facts
• Support arguments and your point of view with
  impact of outside powerful, colorful, and expert
  inputs
• Clear up difficult or debated point of view with
  documented statements from experts
• Show how complex the issues being address are
• Emphasizing the points you are trying to make
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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How to Paraphrase

• Paraphrasing is preferred when you are reporting
  on past research
• Paraphrasing is restating in your own words the
  research findings of others
• Rewrite the original in about the same number of
  words
• Provide citation to the source in body of the
  text
• Use quotation marks to retain exceptional words
  or phrases from the cited source
• Use the same mood in the paraphrase as contained
  in the original like satire, doubt, humor, etc.
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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How to Avoid Plagiarism

• Plagiarism is taking the words of another writer
  and presenting them as your own
• Best way to avoid plagiarism is to use
  appropriate citation and to practice paraphrasing
  the writings of others
• Utilize the APA Guidelines for citing sources in
  text, p. 207
• (Lambie, et al., 2008)

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Other Tips For Scholarly Writing
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Tips for Getting Started in Your Writing

• Start with something new!
• Come up with fresh ideas about old concepts
• Write about something you care about
• Start with something you know
• Write about programs or situations you would be
  interested in learning about
• Not only review literature but try to find new
  meaning for what is out there
• Write down ideas whenever they come to mind-keep
  index cards with you at all times
• Devils Advocate your ideas-looking at them from
  all sides
• (Simmons, 2004)

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Write a Research Paper Like a Lawyer Would

• Define and frame your topic as if you were
  defending a case in court
• Search for sources to back up your case as if you
  were searching for evidence to win the case
• Write the paper as if you were presenting the
  evidence
• In your conclusion draw up your discussion as if
  you were making a closing argument
• (Broskoske, 2007)

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Tips for Writing a Good Research Paper

• Its important to keep in mind the main purposes
  of writing, and choose the proper one
• To inform to arouse interest You state the
  facts objectively, adding that much to the
  readers knowledge (e.g., instructional
  techniques, research methods).
• To persuade or influence attitudes You support
  and present facts with attractive arguments and
  reasons to stir the reader (e.g., calls to
  legislative advocacy).
• To interpret, solve problems, or evaluate
  results You analyze facts and give opinions,
  leaving it to the reader to make up his or her
  own mind (e.g., results of an empirical study).
• (Kosciulek, 2005)

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Use a Writing Formula in Writing Papers

• Chronological or Time Based Approach-from the
  earliest to present
• Traces history
• Describes growth of an organization or process
• Compares similar subjects
• Naming Major Topics-First name them and then
  write on them in the order named
• Simple to Complex-leads reader from easy
  introduction to more weighty issues, formulas,
  and equations
• Least Important to Most Important details-leads
  subject to a crescendo
• Problem Solution-states the problem in brief
  sentence, followed by possible solutions, and how
  each could solve the problem
• Reason- state an opinion or point of view and
  give reasons why you support it
• (Kosciulek, 2005)

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Tips for Writing Your First Draft

• Dont waste your best efforts on your first
  draft!
• Just get your thoughts down on paper-you can
  sharpen your content later!
• Before Your First Draft Think-Plan-Organize
• Prepare by exhaustively reading on the topic you
  want to cover
• Create citations for each piece you read
• After Your First Draft Revise-Revise-Revise
• Tips
• Pick out Key Points and development them
  sequentially
• Write Out Loud so you can hear what you are
  saying
• Open with a Strong Lead-grab your reader from
  start
• (Kosciulek, 2006)

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Advice from an Editor (Herbert, 2007)

• 1. Does your review of the literature specify a
  clear statement of the problem being addressed in
  the paper?
• leads to the major research question
• documents the need for the study
• 2. Are there specific research questions/hypothese
  s that are the defined operationally?
• how concepts in literature review pertain to
  outcome variables in the research questions
• 3. Is the research methodology explained
  sufficiently to allow for replication?
• Major procedural elements described so readers
  understand what happened and rationale for
  following the identified procedures

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Advice from an Editor (Herbert, 2007)

• 4. Is there a clear explanation for choosing the
  selected research design and have the statistical
  assumptions associated with this design been met?
• Readers should understand why the researcher
  employed a particular design and its advantages
  and limitations
• 5. Beyond reporting statistical significance
  explain findings within confidence limit
  intervals and effect size estimates to better
  understand the utility of the data. In cases
  where lack of statistical significance occurs,
  authors should ascertain whether there was
  sufficient statistical power.
• 6. Are conclusions and implications for research
  and practice consistent with data found in the
  study?
• Do not overstate what the data indicate
  particularly in cases where lack of statistical
  significance, weak effect sizes, and/or small
  confidence interval estimates occur

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Address the 4 Big Issues in Scholarly Writing

• 1. Paradox of Writing for Graduate Students who
  for first time in their lives may need to
• Focus on learning how to write
• Receive support to improve their writing
• Change their writing habits to complete a major
  writing task on time
• 2. Errors in Writing
• Mechanical errors of Grammar and Spelling
• Mechanical errors of no citations to back up
  point of view
• Microstructure of writing-poor flow of thoughts
  not well connected and lack of sequencing of
  thoughts and concepts
• Macrostructure of writing-weak quality of
  argumentation and lack of clarity of purpose
• (Diezmann, 2005)

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Address the 4 Big Issues in Scholarly Writing

• 3. Ethical Issues in Writing
• Avoid plagiarism to insure the scholarly writing
  is yours and not just cherry picked from other
  writers
• Understand and abide by the ethical
  responsibilities as a researcher and writer
• 4. Timely Completion of Writing
• Need to avoid the contagious disease plaguing
  graduate students procrastination
• Need to set and follow a strict timeline for
  completion of the scholarly research and writing
  necessary to complete the project
• (Diezmann, 2005)

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Evaluate Your Writing

• Does your writing hold up to these four criteria?
• 1. Quality of Ideas
• Clear focus
• Tackles complexity of topic well giving both
  sides of the issue
• Demonstrate good critical thinking-answers So
  What?
• Effect use of substantial references and
  citations
• 2. Rhetorical situation and arrangement
• You present as a persuasive, credible and
  reliable source
• Paper is logical and rhetorically appropriate to
  the subject and purpose
• Title and Introduction captures readers interest
  
• (Leahy, 2002)

59
Evaluate Your Writing

• 3. Development
• Information in paper is full, accurate and
  satisfying
• You have thorough researched the paper to fill in
  gaps or to enrich the content of the paper
• You demonstrate strong development of ideas by
  the points you make in strong well stated
  paragraphs which are presented in an orderly
  fashion
• There is little padding or repetition
• 4. Style
• All spelling, grammar, wording, and punctuation
  are accurate
• Paper follows APA Guidelines as accurately as
  humanly possible
• There are good transitions between paragraphs
• Sentences are strongly and accurately worded for
  good emphasis and power
• (Leahy, 2002)

60
So Are You Ready to Write Scholarly?

• Make sure you
• Use the APA Publication Manual and APA Style
  Guidelines for Electronic References
• Read all of the articles posted in the references
  in this presentation
• Have done an exhaustive search of the literature
  on your specific focus of your scholarly and
  research work
• Have a thorough understanding of all of the
  mechanics which go into the writing of
  manuscripts
• Just Do It!! Get your initial draft done with a
  catching introduction
• Then revise, revise, revise, etc.
• Best of Luck!

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References

• APA. (2007). APA Style Guide to Electronic
  References. Washington, D.C American
  Psychological Association. Washington, D.C
  American Psychological Association.
• APA. (2001). Publication Manual of the American
  Psychological Association. Washington, D.C
  American Psychological Association.
• Broskoske, S. L., (2007). Prove your case A
  new approach to teaching research papers. College
  Teaching, 55(1), 31-32.
• Diezmann, C. M. (2005). Supervision and scholarly
  writing writing to learn-learning to write.
  Reflective Practice, 6(4), 443-457.
• Hebert, J. (2007). Further thoughts on writing
  for publications. Rehabilitation Education,
  21(2), 71-72.
• Kosciulek, J. F. (2005). Practical guidelines
  for effective writing Part II-Organization.
  Rehabilitation Education, 19(1), 3-4.
• Kosciulek, J. F. (2006) Practical Guidelines for
  Effective Writing Part III-Writing the first
  draft. Rehabilitation Education, 20(1), 3-4.
• Lambie, G.W., Sias S.W., Davis, K.M., Lawson, G.,
  Akos, P. (2008). A scholarly writing resource
  for counselor educators and their students.
  Journal of Counseling and Development, 86(1),
  18-24.
• Leahy, R. (2002). Conducting writing
  assignments. College Teaching, 50(2), 50-54.
• Simmons, M. P. (2004). Writing for successful
  publication. The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin,
  70(3),13-17.