9Intelligence

1
9Intelligence

• The Concept of Intelligence
• The Development of Intelligence
• The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
• Summary

2
The Concept of Intelligence

• What Is Intelligence?
• Intelligence
• The ability to solve problems and to adapt to and
  learn from experiences.
• It can only be evaluated indirectly.

3
The Concept of Intelligence

• Intelligence Tests
• Individual Tests
• Sir Frances Galton, the father of mental tests,
  believed that sensory, perceptual, and motor
  processes were the key dimensions of
  intelligence.

4
The Concept of Intelligence

• Intelligence Tests (continued)
• Binet tests Devised by Alfred Binet at the
  request of the French Ministry of Education to
  determine which students would not profit from
  typical school instruction.
• Mental Age (MA) An individuals level of mental
  development relative to others.
• Intelligent Quotient (IQ) A term coined by
  William Stern (1912) to derive a score from an
  individuals mental age divided by chronological
  age multiplied by 100 (IQ MA/CA x 100).

5
The Concept of Intelligence

• Intelligence Tests (continued)
• The Stanford-Binet Tests
• Revised at Stanford University for use in the
  United States to analyze individual responses in
  verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning,
  abstract/visual reasoning, and short-term memory.
• Scores approximate a normal distribution A
  symmetrical, bell-shaped curve appears, with a
  majority of the cases falling in the middle of
  the possible range of scores and few scores
  appearing toward the extremes of the range.

6
The Concept of Intelligence

• The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores

7
The Concept of Intelligence

• Intelligence Tests (continued)
• The Wechsler Scales
• The Wechsler scales not only provide an overall
  IQ score, but also yield scores on six verbal and
  five nonverbal measures, allowing examiners to
  see areas in which the individual is below
  average, average, or above average.
• Group Tests of Intelligence
• Though more economical and convenient than
  individual tests, group tests have some
  significant disadvantages.

8
The Concept of Intelligence

• Sample Subscales of the Weschler Intelligence
  Scale for Children (WISC-III)

9
The Concept of Intelligence

• The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests
• The effectiveness of psychological tests depends
  on the knowledge, skill, and integrity of the
  user.
• Real-world applications Predict school and job
  success.
• Periodic assessment is required because they only
  measure current academic performance.
• They are moderately correlated with work
  performance, but correlations decrease the longer
  people work at a job, and tests ignore
  motivation, physical and mental health, and
  social skills.

10
The Concept of Intelligence

• Multiple Intelligences
• Factor Approaches
• Two-factor theory Spearmans theory that
  individuals have both general intelligence (g)
  and a number of specific abilities (s).
• Factor analysis A statistical procedure that
  correlates test scores to identify underlying
  clusters (factors) used by Spearman to show that
  general intelligence and specific abilities
  account for a persons performance on an
  intelligence test.

11
The Concept of Intelligence

• Factor Approaches (continued)
• Multiple-factor theory Thurstones theory that
  intelligence consists of seven primary mental
  abilities verbal comprehension, number ability,
  word fluency, spatial visualization, associative
  memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed.

12
The Concept of Intelligence

• Multiple Intelligences (continued)
• Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences (IQ
  tests only measure a few of these)
• Verbal skills
• Mathematical skills
• Spatial skills
• Bodily-kinesthetic skills
• Musical skills
• Interpersonal skills
• Intrapersonal skills
• Naturalist skills

13
The Concept of Intelligence

• Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences
  (continued)
• Everyone has varying degrees of all eight
  intelligences.
• There is considerable interest in applying
  Gardners theory of multiple intelligences to
  childrens education to help them discover and
  explore their domains of natural curiosity and
  talent.
• Each day every student is exposed to materials
  that are designed to stimulate a whole range of
  human abilities.

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The Concept of Intelligence

• Multiple Intelligences (continued)
• Sternbergs Triarchic Theory
• There are three main types of intelligence
• Analytical Traditional concept of intelligence
  as analytical thinking and abstract reasoning.
• Creative Unique thinking that might not conform
  to teachers expectations.
• Practical Social skills and common sense.
• Most tasks require a combination of all three
  intelligences.

15
The Concept of Intelligence

• Multiple Intelligences (continued)
• Emotional Intelligence
• The ability to perceive and express emotion
  accurately and adaptively, to understand emotion
  and emotional knowledge, to use feelings to
  facilitate thought, and to manage emotions in
  oneself and others.

16
The Concept of Intelligence

• Multiple Intelligences (continued)
• Do Children Have One Intelligence or Many
  Intelligences?
• Although controversy exists over whether
  intelligence is a general ability, specific
  abilities, or both, multiple intelligence
  theories have stimulated us to think more broadly
  about what makes up peoples intelligence and
  competence.
• Multiple intelligence theories have also
  motivated educators to develop programs that
  instruct students in different domains.

17
The Concept of Intelligence

• Comparison of Gardners, Sternbergs, and
  Salovey/Mayer/Golemans Views of Intelligence

18
The Concept of Intelligence

• The Influence of Heredity and Environment
• Genetic Influences
• Arthur Jensen (1969) argued that intelligence is
  primarily inherited and environment plays a
  minimal role.
• Adoption studies suggest that though the
  educational levels of biological parents are
  better predictors of children's IQ scores than
  are the IQs of adoptive parents, environments
  nonetheless play an important role.

19
The Concept of Intelligence

• Genetic Influences (continued)
• Heritability The fraction of the variance in a
  population that is attributed to genetics.
• Heritability refers to groups (populations), not
  to individuals (Okagaki, 2000).
• Researchers have found that the heritability of
  intelligence increases from childhood to
  adulthood (McGue et al., 1993).

20
The Concept of Intelligence

• Correlation between Intelligence Test Scores and
  Twin Status

21
The Concept of Intelligence

• The Influence of Heredity and Environment
  (continued)
• Environmental Influences
• For most people, modifications in environment can
  change their IQ scores considerably.
• Among the environmental factors that influence
  intelligence are socioeconomic status, parental
  communication with and support of children,
  quality of neighborhoods, and quality of schools.
• The rapid increase in IQ scores around the world
  suggest the effects of education rather than
  heredity.

22
The Concept of Intelligence

• The Increase in IQ Scores from 1932 to 1997

23
The Concept of Intelligence

• Group Comparisons
• Cross-Cultural Comparisons
• Cultures vary in the way they define
  intelligence.
• Western cultures view intelligence in terms of
  reasoning and thinking skills, Eastern cultures
  see intelligence as a way for members of a
  community to engage in social roles successfully.

24
The Concept of Intelligence

• Group Comparisons (continued)
• Cultural Bias in Testing
• Early intelligence tests favored people from
  urban rather than rural environments,
  middle-socioeconomic status rather than
  low-socioeconomic status, and whites rather than
  African Americans.
• Culture-fair tests Intelligence tests that are
  intended not to be culturally biased however,
  people with more education still score higher
  than those with less education because tests
  reflect what the dominant culture thinks is
  important.

25
The Concept of Intelligence

• Sample Item from the Ravens Progressive Matrices
  Test

26
The Concept of Intelligence

• Group Comparisons (continued)
• Ethnic Comparisons
• In the U.S., children from African American and
  Latino families score below children from white
  families on standardized intelligence tests.
• As African Americans have gained social,
  economic, and educational opportunities, the gap
  between African Americans and whites on
  standardized intelligence tests has begun to
  narrow.
• Stereotype threat The anxiety that ones
  behavior might confirm a negative stereotype
  about ones group.

27
The Concept of Intelligence

• Group Comparisons (continued)
• Gender Comparisons
• The average scores of males and females do not
  differ on intelligence tests, but variability in
  their scores does differ (Brody, 2000), with
  males showing greater extremes in range.
• Although there is extensive overlap in scores,
  gender differences exist in some intellectual
  areas
• Males score better on spatial reasoning tasks.
• Females score better in some verbal areas.

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Learn and ReflectLearning Goal 1

• Explain the nature of intelligence

29
Learn and ReflectLearning Goal 1

• Review
• What is intelligence?
• What are the main individual tests of
  intelligence? What are some issues in the use of
  group tests of intelligence?
• What theories of multiple intelligences have been
  developed? Do people have one intelligence or
  many intelligences?
• What evidence indicates that heredity influences
  IQ scores? What evidence indicates that
  environment influences IQ scores?
• What is known about the intelligence of people
  from different cultures and ethnic groups? To
  what extent are there differences in the
  intelligence of females and males?

30
Learn and ReflectLearning Goal 1

• Reflect
• A CD-ROM is being sold to parents for testing
  their childs IQ. What are some potential
  problems with parents giving their child an IQ
  test and interpreting the results?

31
The Development of Intelligence

• Tests of Infant Intelligence
• Arnold Gesell (1934) developed a measure that
  served as a clinical tool to help sort out
  potentially normal babies from abnormal ones.
• Developmental quotient (DQ) An overall
  developmental score that combines subscores in
  the motor, language, adaptive, and
  personal-social domains of the Gesell assessment
  of infants.

32
The Development of Intelligence

• Tests of Infant Intelligence (continued)
• Bayley Scales of Infant Development
• Widely used scales for assessing infants from 1
  to 42 months of age to diagnose developmental
  delays and plan intervention strategies.
• The scale has three main components a Mental
  Scale, a Motor Scale, and the Infant Behavior
  Profile.
• Scores on the Gesell Bayley scales do not
  correlate highly with IQ scores obtained later in
  childhood.

33
The Development of Intelligence

• Tests of Infant Intelligence (continued)
• The Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence
• Focuses on the infants ability to process
  information.
• Elicits similar performances from infants in
  different cultures.
• Correlates with measures of intelligence in older
  children.
• Measures of habituation and dishabituation
  predict later intelligence.

34
The Development of Intelligence

• Stability and Change in Intelligence through
  Adolescence
• There is a strong relation between IQ scores
  obtained at the ages of 6, 8, and 9 and IQ scores
  obtained at the age of 10.
• However, intelligence test scores can fluctuate
  dramatically across the childhood years
  intelligence is not as stable as the original
  intelligence theorists envisioned.

35
Review and ReflectLearning Goal 2

• Discuss the development of intelligence
• Review
• How is intelligence assessed during infancy?
• How much does intelligence change through
  childhood and adolescence?
• Reflect
• As a parent, would you want your infants
  intelligence tested? Why or why not?

36
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

• Mental Retardation
• A condition of limited mental ability in which
  the individual has a low IQ, usually below 70,
  has difficulty adapting to everyday life, and
  first exhibits these characteristics by age 18.
• There are several ways to classify degrees of
  mental retardation the one adopted by most
  school systems uses IQ scores to categorize
  retardation as mild, moderate, severe, or
  profound.
• Mental retardation may have an organic cause, or
  it may be social and cultural in origin.

37
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

• Classification of Mental Retardation Based on IQ

38
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

• Classification of Mental Retardation Based on
  Levels of Support Needed

39
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

• Giftedness
• People who are gifted
• Have a high IQ (130 or higher) or a superior
  talent in a certain area.
• Although many gifted people throughout history
  experienced emotional distress, they are the
  exception, not the rule.
• Recent studies conclude that gifted people tend
  to be more mature and have fewer emotional
  problems than others.

40
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

• Giftedness (continued)
• Characteristics of children who are gifted
• Precocity
• Marching to their own drummer
• A passion to master
• Life course of the gifted Early on they have
  innate ability, strong family support, and years
  of training and practice.
• Deliberate practice Appropriate level of
  difficulty, corrective feedback, opportunities
  for repetition.
• The gifted become experts, but not major creators.

41
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

• Creativity
• The ability to think about something in novel and
  unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to
  problems.
• Creativity and intelligence are not the same
  thingthough most creative people are
  intelligent, not all intelligent people are
  creative.

42
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

• Creativity (continued)
• Creativity requires divergent thinking
• Divergent thinking Thinking that produces many
  answers to the same question characteristic of
  creativity.
• Convergent thinking Thinking that produces one
  correct answer characteristic of the type of
  thinking required on traditional intelligence
  tests.

43
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

• Creativity (continued)
• Guiding Childrens Creativity
• Have children engage in brainstorminga technique
  in which children are encouraged to come up with
  creative ideas in a group, play off each others
  ideas, and say practically whatever comes to
  mindand come up with as many ideas as possible.
• However, some children are more creative when
  they work alone.

44
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

• Guiding Childrens Creativity (continued)
• Provide children with environments that stimulate
  creativity.
• Dont overcontrol.
• Encourage internal motivation.
• Introduce children to creative people.

45
Review and ReflectLearning Goal 3

• Describe the characteristics of mental
  retardation, giftedness, and creativity
• Review
• What is mental retardation and what are its
  causes?
• What makes children gifted?
• What makes people creative?

46
Review and ReflectLearning Goal 3

• Reflect
• If you were an elementary school teacher, what
  would you do to encourage students creativity?

47
Summary

• Intelligence consists of the ability to solve
  problems and to adapt and learn from everyday
  experiences.
• Sir Frances Galton is the father of mental tests.
  Alfred Binet developed the first intelligence
  test and created the concept of mental age.
  William Stern developed the concept of IQ for use
  with the Binet test.

48
Summary

• When used by a judicious examiner, tests can be
  valuable tools for determining individual
  differences in intelligence.
• Factor analysis is a statistical procedure that
  compares various items or measures and identifies
  factors that are correlated with each other.
• Spearman (two-factor theory of g and s) and
  Thurstone (multiple-factor theory) used factor
  analysis in developing their views of
  intelligence.

49
Summary

• Gardner believes there are eight types of
  intelligence verbal skills, mathematical skills,
  spatial skills, bodily-kinesthetic skills,
  musical skills, interpersonal skills,
  intrapersonal skills, and naturalist skills.

50
Summary

• Sternbergs triarchic theory states that there
  are three main types of intelligence analytical,
  creative, and practical.
• Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive
  and express emotion accurately and adaptively, to
  understand emotion and emotional knowledge, to
  use feelings to facilitate thought, and to manage
  emotions in oneself and others.

51
Summary

• The multiple-intelligences approaches have
  broadened the definition of intelligence and
  motivated educators to develop programs that
  instruct students in different domains.
• Critics of multiple intelligences maintain that
  factors such as musical skills and creativity are
  not part of intelligence, and there is
  insufficient research to support the concept.

52
Summary

• Genetic similarity might explain why identical
  twins show stronger correlations on intelligence
  tests than fraternal twins do.
• IQs of adopted children are more similar to IQs
  of their biological parents than their adoptive
  parents.
• Environmental influences on intelligence have
  also been demonstrated for example, how much
  parents talk with their children is correlated
  with childrens IQs educational child care has a
  positive influence on intelligence.

53
Summary

• Cultures vary in the way they define
  intelligence.
• Early intelligence tests favored white,
  middle-socioeconomic status, urban individuals.
• Sources of bias in tests include lack of
  familiarity with a standard form of English, the
  content tested, or the testing situation, plus
  the fact that tests reflect the values and
  experience of the dominant culture.

54
Summary

• In the United States, children from African
  American and Latino families score below children
  from white families on standardized intelligence
  tests.
• Males are more likely than females to have
  extreme scores (high or low).
• There are gender differences in specific
  intellectual abilities.

55
Summary

• Gesell was an important early contributor to
  developmental testing of infants.
• Tests designed to assess infant intelligence
  include the widely used Bayley scales.
• The Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence, which
  assesses how effectively infants process
  information, is increasingly being used.
• Habituation and dishabituation are related to
  standardized scores of intelligence in children.
• Scores on intelligence tests fluctuate
  considerably.

56
Summary

• Mental retardation is a condition of limited
  mental ability in which the individual has low
  IQ, usually below 70, has difficulty adapting to
  everyday life, and has an onset of these
  characteristics by age 18.
• Most affected individuals have an IQ in the 5570
  range (mild retardation).
• Retardation can have an organic cause or be
  social and cultural in origin.

57
Summary

• People who are gifted have high intelligence (an
  IQ of 130 or higher) or superior talent in a
  certain area.
• Three characteristics of gifted children are
  precocity, marching to their own drummer, and a
  passion to master their domain.
• Giftedness is likely a consequence of both
  heredity and environment.

58
Summary

• Creativity is the ability to think about
  something in novel and unusual ways and come up
  with unique solutions to problems.
• Most creative people are intelligent, but not
  everyone with a high IQ is creative.
• Creative people tend to be divergent thinkers
  traditional intelligence measures convergent
  thinking.