BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

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BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

• THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBON

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Molecule Modules

• Subunits - smaller molecules that are the basic
  structure of larger more complex molecules
• Monomer - Greek meaning one part
• Polymer - large molecule composed of two or more
  monomers

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THE UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS DEPEND
UPON

• CARBON BACKBONE and
• FUNCTIONAL GROUPS - ATOMS OR GROUPS OF ATOMS
  ATTACHED TO CARBON BACKBONE

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• POLARITY OF SOME FUNCTIONAL GROUPS MAKE ORGANIC
  MOLECULE SOLUBLE IN WATER (HYDROPHILIC)
• OTHERS ARE NON-POLAR AND ARE HYDROPHOBIC

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MACROMOLECULES

• LARGE ORGANIC MOLECULES
• 4 CLASSES OF
• CARBOHYDRATES
• LIPIDS (FATS)
• PROTEINS
• NUCLEIC ACIDS
• MACROMOLECULES BUILT FROM SMALLER COMPONENTS OR
  MONOMERS

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• CHAINS OF MONOMERS BONDED TOGETHER FORM POLYMERS
• LIFE HAS A SIMPLE YET ELEGANT MOLECULAR LOGIC
  SMALL MOLECULES COMMON TO ALL ORGANISMS ARE
  ORDERED INTO MACROMOLECULES, WHICH VARY FROM
  SPECIES TO SPECIES AND EVEN INDIVIDUAL TO
  INDIVIDUAL
• MONOMERS LINKED THROUGH DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS AND
  DIGESTED THROUGH HYDROLYSIS

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How Are Organic Molecules Synthesized?

• Biological Molecules Are Joined Together or
  Broken Apart by Removing or Adding Water
• Table 3.2 The Principal Biological Molecules (p.
  40)
• Figure 1 Dehydration synthesis (p. 39)
• Figure 2 Hydrolysis (p. 39)
• Figure 3 Monosaccharide examples (p. 40)
• Figure 4 Monosaccharide examples (p. 40)

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O
HO
OH
HO
OH
OH
HO
O
H
H
Dehydration synthesis
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O
OH
HO
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
H
H
Hydrolysis
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CARBOHYDRATES

• MONOMERS OR SINGLE UNIT SUGARS CALLED
  MONOSACCHARIDES
• MAIN FUEL SOURCE OF CELLS
• DISACCHRIDE - TWO SUGARS

• POLYSACCHARIDES ARE POLYMERS COMPOSED OF MONOMERS
• ENERGY STORAGE
• STRUCTURAL

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Monosaccharides

• Glucose - most common monosaccharide, a 6-carbon
  sugar
• Chemical formula C6H12O6 or (CH2O)6
• Others include
• Galactose (6-carbon)
• Fructose (6-carbon)
• Ribose (5-carbon)
• Deoxyribose (5-carbon)

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CH2OH
O
O
HOCH2
H
HO
OH
H
H
HO
OH
H
H
H
CH2OH
HO
HO
H
H
OH
galactose
fructose
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O
O
OH
HOCH2
HOCH2
OH
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
OH
OH
OH
H
ribose
deoxyribose
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H
O
H
H
H
H
2
3
5
6
4
1

C
C
C
C
C
C
H
H
O
O
O
O
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
O
6
CH2OH
C
H
H
glucose
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O
O
C
H
H
H
H
H
H

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1
C
C
H
HO
OH
OH
H
H
O
O
O
3
2
H
C
H
C
H
OH
H
O
H
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What Are Carbohydrates?

• Disaccharides Consist of Two Single Sugars Linked
  by Dehydration Synthesis
• Polysaccharides Are Chains of Single Sugars
• Figure 3.8 Starch is an energy-storage
  polysaccharide made of glucose subunits (p. 42)
• Figure 3.9 Cellulose structure and function (p.
  43)
• Figure 3.10 Chitin A unique polysaccharide (p.
  44)

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Disaccharides

• Often used for short term energy storage
• Common ones
• Sucrose (Glucose Fructose)
• Lactose (Glucose Galactose)
• Maltose (Glucose Glucose)

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glucose
fructose
sucrose
CH2OH
CH2OH
O
O
O
O
HOCH2
HOCH2
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Dehydration synthesis

O
OH
OH
H
H
HO
H
H
HO
HO
O
H
CH2OH
HO
HO
CH2 OH
O
OH
H
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
H
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Polysaccharides

• Long term energy storage and structural material
• Forms
• Starch - plant energy storage molecule
• Glycogen - animal energy storage molecule
• Cellulose - plant structural molecule
• Chitin - modified structural polysaccharide of
  fungi, insects, spiders, and crabs

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100 micrometers
masses of starch globules
CH2OH
CH2OH
O
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
OH
H
OH
H
O
H
OH
H
OH
O
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2
CH2OH
O
O
O
O
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
O
OH
O
O
O
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
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100 micrometers
masses of starch globules
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wood is mostly cellulose
plant cell with cell wall
close-up of cell wall
1 micrometer
1 micrometer
CH2OH
CH2OH
OH
OH
H
H
O
O
H
H
H
H
OH
OH
H
O
H
H
H
O
H
H
OH
H
O
OH
H
O
O
H
H
cellulose fiber
H
H
individual cellulose molecules
bundle of cellulose molecules
O
O
H
H
OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
H
OH
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LIPIDS

• DIVERSE COMPOUNDS CONSISTING MAINLY OF CARBON AND
  HYDROGEN ATOMS LINKED BY NON-POLAR BONDS
• FATS and OILS - GLYCEROL AND FATTY ACIDS
• SATURATED VS UNSATURATED FAT

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LIPIDS

• PHOSPHOLIPIDS - A MAJOR STRUCTURAL POLYMER OF
  CELLS
• WAXES - A FATTY ACID LINKED TO AN ALCOHOL, VERY
  HYDROPHOBIC
• STEROIDS - LIPIDS WHOSE CARBON SKELETON FORMS
  RINGS (STRUCTURAL MOLECULE AS WELL AS PRECURSOR
  FOR MANY OTHER STEROID CLASS MOLECULES)

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Fat
Wax
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Beef fat (saturated)
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oleic acid
Linseed oil (unsaturated)
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Lipids

• Phospholipids - Have Water-Soluble Heads and
  Water-Insoluble Tails
• Figure 3.15 Phospholipids (p. 46)

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-
CH3
-
CH2
-
CH2
CH3
O
-
CH2
-
CH2
-
CH2
H3
-
-CH2
-O-P-O-CH2
C-N-CH2
O
CH2
-
CH2
CH2

CH3
O
CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
HC-O-C-
O
H2
C-O-C-
-CH2
-CH2
CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH2
-CH3
glycerol backbone
polar head
fatty acid tails
(hydrophobic)
(hydrophilic)
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Lipids

• Steroids - Consist of Four Carbon Rings Fused
  Together
• Figure 3.16 Steroids (p. 46)

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OH
CH3
CH3
CH3
HC
CH2
HO
CH2
estradiol
CH2
HC
CH3
OH
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
HO
O
testosterone
cholesterol
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PROTEINS

• MOST DIVERSE OF THE MACROMOLECULES
• MONOMER AMINO ACID
• 20 AMINO ACIDS USED TO BUILD PROTEINS
• AMINO ACIDS LINKED THROUGH A COVALENT BOND WHICH
  IS CALLED A PEPTIDE

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Amino Acid

• All 20 amino acids are fundamentally the same in
  structure
• Central Carbon covalently bonded to an
• amino group,
• carboxylic acid group,
• hydrogen, and a
• variable group - its this group that establishes
  the chemical nature of the amino acid

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variable group
R
H
O
amino group
carboxylic acid group
N
C
C
H
O
H
H
hydrogen
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PROTEIN

• PRIMARY STRUCTURE - SEQUENCE OF AMINO ACIDS
• SECONDARY STRUCTURE
• ALPHA HELIX
• PLEATED SHEET
• TERTIARY STRUCTURE
• QUATERNARY STRUCTURE

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PROTEINS

• FUNCTIONS
• ENERGY STORAGE
• ENZYMES -POISONS
• STRUCTURAL -TRANSPORT
• MOVEMENT -HORMONES
• ANTIBODIES

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Hair
Horn
Silk
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Hair
44
Horn
45
Silk
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PROTEIN

• PROTEINS SPECIFIC SHAPE DETERMINES ITS FUNCTION
• SHAPE DEPENDS UPON THE SEQUENCE OF AMINO ACIDS
• 4 LEVELS OF STRUCTURE THE LAST THREE DEPENDENT
  UPON THE PRECEDING ONE

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Proteins

• Proteins Are Formed from Chains of Amino Acids
• Figure 3.19 Amino acid diversity (p. 49)

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hydrophilic
NH2
C
NH
NH
O
OH
CH2
C
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
C
C
OH
C
H2N
C
C
C
OH
H2N
O
H
H
O
H
H
glutamic acid (glu)
arginine (arg)
hydrophobic
CH3
CH3
CH
CH2
CH2
C
C
H2N
C
OH
C
C
H2N
C
OH
O
H
H
O
H
H
leucine (leu)
phenylalanine (phe)
forms disulfide bridges
SH
CH2
C
C
H2N
C
OH
O
H
cysteine (cys)
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Proteins

• Amino Acids Are Joined to Form Chains by
  Dehydration Synthesis
• Figure 3.20 Protein synthesis (p. 49)
• Protein shape influenced by development of
  disulfide bridges

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s
s
s-s
s-s
s-s
s
s
s
s
keratin
Disulfide bridges
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Proteins

• A Protein Can Have Up to Four Levels of Structure
• Figure 3.21 The four levels of protein structure
  (p. 50)
• The pleated sheet is an example of protein
  secondary structure (p. 51)
• Figure 3-24 Deoxyribose nucleotide (p. 53)
• Figure 3-25 Nucleotide chain (p. 51)

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R
R
R
R
R
O
O
O
O
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
N
N
N
C
C
N
N
N
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
polypeptide
O
O
O
O
R
R
R
R
H
H
H
H
hydrogen bond
R
R
R
R
O
O
O
R
O
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
N
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
N
N
N
O
O
O
O
R
R
R
R
Pleated sheet
Another possible secondary structure
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Nucleic Acids

• DNA and RNA, the Molecules of Heredity, Are
  Nucleic Acids
• Other Nucleotides Act as Intracellular
  Messengers, Energy Carriers, or Coenzymes
• Figure 3.27 A sampling of the diversity of
  nucleotides (p. 54)

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NUCLEIC ACIDS

• SERVE AS BLUE PRINTS FOR PROTEINS
• DNA - DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
• RNA - RIBONUCLEIC ACID
• MONOMERS THAT MAKE UP NUCLEIC ACIDS ARE CALLED
  NUCLEOTIDES

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base
NH2
phosphate
C
N
C
N
OH
HC
CH
O
C
N
HO
P
O
CH
N
O
sugar
H
H
H
H
OH
H
Deoxyribose nucleotide
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phosphate
base
sugar
Nucleotide chain
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NUCLEOTIDES

• All nucleotides have the same three part
  structure
• five-carbon sugar
• ribose sugar or
• deoxyribose sugar
• a phosphate group
• a nitrogen containing base that differs among
  nucleotides

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Vitamin
NH2
NH2
C
O
N
C
C
N
N
C
N
P
O
HO
HC
HC
CH
C
NH2
N
CH
N
C
O
N
N
C
OH
OH
OH
N
O
P
O
HO
N
C
CH2
O
O
HO
CH2
HC
P
O
P
O
P
O
O
CH
C
N
H
H
N
H
O
O
O
O
H
H
H
CH2
H
H
O
OH
O
P
H
H
OH
OH
H
H
OH
OH
OH
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic
AMP) (intracellular communication)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (energy carrier)
Coenzyme (active in cellular metabolism)
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NH2
C
N
C
N
HC
CH
C
N
N
O
CH2
O
H
H
H
H
O
OH
O
P
OH
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic
AMP) (intracellular communication)
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NH2
C
N
C
N
HC
CH
C
N
N
OH
OH
OH
O
HO
CH2
P
O
P
O
P
O
O
O
O
H
H
H
H
OH
OH
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (energy carrier)
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Vitamin
O
P
O
HO
NH2
O
C
N
P
O
HO
N
C
HC
O
CH
C
N
N
O
CH2
H
H
H
H
OH
OH
Coenzyme (active in cellular metabolism)