Logos, Ethos, and Pathos

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Logos, Ethos, and Pathos
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Argument Claims with Reasons

• Rhetorical Triangle
• Logos - internal consistency and clarity, logic
  of reasons and support (logical appeal)
• Ethos - credibility of arguer, care in presenting
  alternate views, writer investment in claims,
  possibly reputation for honesty and expertise
  (ethical appeal)
• Pathos - appealing to audiences imaginative
  sympathies, making argument palpable and
  immediate

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Rhetorical Triangle
Message (LOGOS How can I make the argument
consistent and logical? How can I find the best
reasons and evidence?)
Writer or Speaker (ETHOS How can I present
myself effectively? How can I enhance my
credibility and trustworthiness?)
Audience (PATHOS How can I make the reader open
to my message? How can I appeal to the readers
values and interests?)
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Facts

• What are they?
• A fact is a noncontroversial piece of data that
  is verifiable through observation or through
  appeal to communally accepted authorities.
• Facts can increase persuasiveness by having
• -Recency. Whats the latest data?
• -Representativeness. Are the supporting exampes
  typical rather than extreme or rare.
• -Sufficiency. Are there enough examples to
  justify the point. (No hasty generalization.)

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Issue Questions are the Basis of Argument

• Issue question controversial question that gives
  rise to alternative answers.
• Issue versus information questions
• -Some questions merely call for more information,
  not argument. In answering an information
  question, you assume the role of a teacher.
• -But if you must assume the role of an advocate,
  then the question is an issue question.
• -Also if the facts of the answer are
  controversial, then the question is an issue
  question.

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Arguments Claims Supported by Reasons

• What is a reason?
• A reason is a claim used to support another
  claim.
• Reasons are usually linked to their claims with
  words like because, thus, since, consequently,
  and therefore to underscore their logical
  connection.
• Formulating lists of reasons for the competing
  views can break the persuasive task into more
  manageable subtasks.
• A good way to formulate an argument is to create
  a working thesis statement that summarizes your
  main reasons as because clauses attached to your
  claim. However, be aware of the opposing points
  of view.

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The Idea of Warrants

• Based on the work of philosopher Stephen Toulmin
• Toulmin rejected the model of argument based on
  formal logic.
• He favored an audience-based courtroom model.
• -All assertions and assumptions are contestable
  by opposing counsel
• -All final verdicts about the persuasiveness of
  an argument are rendered by a neutral third
  party, judge, or jury.
• The opposing counsel forces us to anticipate
  counterarguments and to question our assumptions.
• The judge and jury press us to answer opposing
  arguments fully and effectively.
• The warrant is the unstated assumption upon which
  an argument is based and that may have to be
  examined itself.

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Warrants
Evidence
Counter-evidence
Synthesis
Conclusion
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Logos--Evidence

• Types of evidence
• Evidence from personal experience
• Evidence from interviews, surveys, and
  questionnaires
• Evidence from written sources
• Evidence from numerical data and statistics

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Evidence from Personal Experience

• Collected from Memory
• -Anecdotal evidence
• -This can give flavor and specificity to an
  argument
• -But can personal experience be generalized? Too
  narrow?
• -To strengthen an argument, the personal
  experience should be backed up by broader
  evidence (e.g., testimony of experts, accurate
  statistics)
• Collected from Observations
• -This is the basis of the experimental method.
• -But observations should be carefully made and
  unbiased.
• -The best observational experiments are carefully
  planned and complete for their purposes. Not easy
  to do.

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Evidence from Interviews, Surveys, and
Questionnaires

• Interviews are a good way to collect new
  information (things you might not be aware of)
  and alternate points of view.
• -These can still be narrow may still want other
  evidence.
• Surveys and questionnaires can be useful if you
  can get good response from the community of
  interest
• -Good questions can be hard to formulate.

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Evidence from Written Sources

• This is a main way of obtaining broader evidence
  to support your arguments.
• Reading can supply facts (or purported facts) and
  examples (e.g., specific cases)
• -Distinguish between indisputable facts and
  claims.
• Arguments are often buttressed by summaries of
  research (with references included).
• How will you find expert opinions? And remember
  that experts sometimes disagree.

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Evidence from Numerical Data and Statistics

• Numerical data and statistics have an air of
  precision and quantitativeness about them.
• But remember that there can be good data and bad
  data!
• Statistical graphics can be very good in showing
  the relationships (that may not be easy to see
  otherwise) in a set of data. But the graphics
  must be constructed carefully.
• -Avoid the USA Today effect (graphics that are
  irrelevant or superfluous and just used for color
  and snappy design).

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Get the Most from your Evidence

• When possible, select data from sources that the
  reader will trust.
• Distinguish fact from inference or opinion
• -Remember that fact is a noncontroversial piece
  of data that is verifiable through observation or
  throug appeal to communally accepted authorities.
• Increase persuasiveness by ensuring
• -Recency. Cite the most recent evidence unless it
  is a timeless issue.
• -Representativeness. Supporting examples are more
  persuasive when the audience believes they are
  typical rather than extreme.
• -Sufficiency. Beware of making sweeping
  generalizations on insufficient evidence.