Unit 8, 9, 10 Review

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Unit 8, 9, 10 Review
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Kingdoms

• There are 6 Kingdoms, in 3 different Domains
• Domain Archaea
• Kingdom Archaebacteria prokaryotes that seem to
  have diverged very early from bacteria. More
  closely related to Eukaryotes than bacteria.
• Domain Bacteria
• Kingdom Eubacteria prokaryotes that have the
  same kind of lipid in their cell membranes as do
  eukaryotes.
• Domain Eukarya
• Kingdoms
• Protista Eukaryotes that are not fungi, plants,
  or animals. Unicellular or multi-cellular.
• Fungi mostly multi-cellular eukaryotes with
  chitin in their cell walls.
• Plantae complex multi-cellular organisms that
  produce their own food.
• Animalia complex multi-cellular organisms that
  eat other organisms for food.
• Vertebrates an animal with a backbone
• Invertebrates an animal with no backbone

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Domains and Kingdoms
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Classifying Organisms

• There are eight levels of classification.
• Similar genera are grouped into a family.
• Similar families are grouped into an order.
• Similar orders are grouped into a class.
• Similar classes are grouped into a phylum.
• Similar phyla are grouped into a kingdom.
• Similar kingdom are grouped into domains.
• Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus
  Species
• Do Kindly Pay Cash Or Furnish Good Security
• Daring Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Silk

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Groups at the top are more inclusive! Groups
towards the bottom are less inclusive!
Observations from fossils, comparative
morphology, and comparative biochemistry are used
to construct taxonomic systems and to organism
organisms into these various groups.
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Adaptations of Plants

• The first plants lived near water, where drying
  out was not a problem.
• Eventually, plants developed traits to allow them
  to live in drier habitats.
• Cuticle a waxy, watertight covering that reduces
  water loss
• Covers the non-woody aboveground plant parts
• Stomata (singular stomata) pores that permit
  plants to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Guard Cells Specialized cells that border stoma
• Stomata open and close as the guard cells change
  shape

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Plant Tissue Types

• Dermal Tissue the protective outer layer of a
  plant.
• Ground Tissue makes up much of the inside of the
  non-woody parts of a plant, including roots,
  stems, and leaves.
• Vascular Tissue tissues that distribute
  materials efficiently through the plant.
• Xylem
• Phloem

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Conducting Tissue

• Vascular Plant a plant with a vascular system
• Vascular system a system of well-developed
  vascular tissues that distribute materials
  efficiently through the plant in larger, complex
  plants.
• Non-vascular Plant a plant with no vascular
  system.
• Types of Vascular Tissue
• Phloem soft-welled cells that transport organic
  nutrients
• Xylem hard-walled cells that transport water in
  mineral nutrients
• The Xylem and the phloem are contained in a
  strand of conducting tissue called the Vascular
  Bundle.

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Root Conducting Tissue

• Plants developed roots to absorb nutrients
• Roots are made of 3 types of tissue
• Epidermis the outside layer
• Vascular tissue the conducting tissue, contains
  the xylem and phloem
• Cortex tissue stores sugar and starch
• All roots have a protective covering at the end
  of the root called a root cap, And tiny root
  hairs along the side of the root that increase
  absorption of nutrients by increasing surface
  area.
• Roots are divided into 2 categories based upon
  shape.
• Tap roots large central roots from which many
  smaller roots branch
• Fibrous root highly branched root system
• Additionally, some plants also have roots that
  grow from aboveground stems or leaves, which are
  called adventitious roots.

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Monocots and Dicots

• Monocots flowering plants that produce seeds
  with one seed leaf
• Most monocots also produce flowers with parts
  that are in multiples of three
• Have long, narrow leaves with parallel veins
• Dicots flowering plants that produce seeds with
  two seed leaves
• Most dicots produce flowers with parts in
  multiples of two, four, or five
• Have leaves with branching veins

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Ground Tissue

• Makes up most of the inside of plants.
• Can have different functions
• Leaf Ground Tissue full of chloroplasts for
  photosynthesis
• Stem Ground Tissue stores water, sugar, and
  starch.
• Root Ground Tissue sores water, sugar, and
  starch.

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Flowers

• Male Parts
• Anther
• Filament
• The anther and filament together make up the
  stamen.
• Female Parts
• Stigma
• Style
• Ovary
• The stigma, style, and ovary together make up the
  pistil.
• Other Parts
• Petal
• Sepal

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Movement of Water

• Water moves from the roots to the leaves in the
  xylem.
• Basically, water is pulled up through the plant
  through transpiration pull as water evaporates.
• Transpiration the loss of water vapor from a
  plant
• Root Pressure root pressure, in plants, force
  that helps to drive fluids upward into the
  water-conducting vessels (xylem)

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Guard Cells and Transpiration

• A stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells
  that are shaped like two cupped hands.
• Changes in water pressure within in the guard
  cells cause the stoma to open or close.
• When the guard cells take in water, the swell,
  opening the stoma an allowing transpiration to
  occur.
• When water leaves the guard cells, the shorten
  and move close to each other, closing the stoma
  and stopping transpiration.

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Movement of Organic Compounds

• Organic compounds move through a plant within the
  phloem.
• Source the part of a plant that provides organic
  compounds for other parts
• A leaf is a source because it makes starch in
  photosynthesis
• Sink the part of a plant that organic compounds
  are delivered to
• Actively growing areas are sinks because they
  need sugar to grow
• Translocation the movement of organic compounds
  within a plant from a source to a sink

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Pollination and Germination

• Pollination the transfer of pollen grains from
  the male reproductive structures of a plant to
  the female reproductive structures of a plant.
• Germination the beginning of growth or
  development in a seed, spore, or zygote,
  especially after a period of inactivity.

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Seeds Sprout

• Seeds contain a plant embryo that is in a state
  of suspended animation.
• Seeds sprout with a burst of growth in response
  to certain changes in the environment.
• Examples rising temperature, increased moisture
• Endosperm a triploid tissue that develops in the
  seeds of angiosperms and that provides food for a
  developing embryo

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Meristems

• Meristem a region of undifferentiated plant
  cells that are capable of dividing and developing
  into specialized plant tissues.
• Primary Growth growth that increases the length
  or height of a plant.cell division.
• Secondary Growth growth that increases the width
  of stems and roots.

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Hormonal Control of Growth

• Plants bend toward light as they grow.
• Auxin the chemical that causes the stem to bend
  towards light.

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Tropisms

• Tropism a response in which a plant grows either
  toward or away from a stimulus.
• Three Types of Tropisms
• Phototropism responses to light
• A plant bends towards light, this is called
  positive phototrophism.
• Gravitropisms responses to gravity
• The upward growth of shoots is a negative
  gravitropism the downward growth of roots is a
  positive gravitropism.
• Thigmotropism response to touch
• The coiling of a grapevine around a wire is
  thigmotropism.

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Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries

• Arteries blood vessels that carry blood away
  from the heart. Eventually blood is pushed
  through to the much smaller capillaries.
• Capillaries tiny blood vessels that allow the
  exchange of gases, nutrients, hormones, and other
  molecules in the blood. From the capillaries,
  the blood flows into venules and then veins.
• Veins blood vessels that carry blood back to the
  heart.

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Three Types of Blood Cells

• Red Blood Cells the majority of blood cells,
  these are cells that carry oxygen. Also called
  erythrocytes.
• White Blood Cells defend the body against
  disease.
• Platelets help blood to clot, so that all of
  your blood wont leak out of your body!

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The Digestive System

• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Salivary Glands
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small Intestine
• Large Intestine
• Duodenum
• Rectum
• Anus
• Gallbladder
• Liver
• Pancreas

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Neurons and Synapses

• Neurons nerve cells
• Dendrites extend from nerve cell body
• Axon Long membrane-covered extension of
  cytoplasm that conducts nerve impulses
• Nerves Bundles of axons
• Synapse a junction at which a neuron meets
  another

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The Brain

• The Brain The bodys main processing center.
• Cerebrum controls learning, memory, perception,
  and intellectual function.
• Cerebellum regulates balance, posture, and
  movement.
• Brain Stem important to homeostasis regulates
  heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature.
• Thalamus sensory processing
• Hypothalamus help regulates breathing, heart
  rate, hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system
• The Hypothalamus is a great example of the
  important connection between the nervous and
  endocrine systems.

The Spinal Cord a dense cable of nervous tissue
that runs through the vertebral column, starting
at the medulla oblongata.
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The Endocrine System

• Endocrine Glands ductless organs that secrete
  hormones directly into either the bloodstream or
  the fluid around cells (extracellular fluid).
• All endocrine glands and hormones together make
  up the Endocrine System.

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Feedback Mechanisms

• The human body makes more than 40 hormones, and
  it must regulate the release.
• The endocrine system plays an important role in
  homeostasis different hormones moving through
  the bloodstream affect specific target tissues,
  and the amounts of various hormones must be
  maintained in a very narrow range.
• Feedback mechanisms detect the amount of hormones
  in circulation and the endocrine system then
  adjusts the amount of hormones being made or
  released.

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Negative Feedback

• Positive Feedback when high levels of a hormone
  stimulate the output of even MORE hormone.
• Example the hormone that stimulates egg release
  also regulates the female hormone estrogen. A
  rise in estrogen levels, however, will stimulate
  the release of more of the regulatory hormone.
• Negative Feedback a change in one direction
  stimulates the control mechanism to counteract
  further change in the same direction.
• Controls most hormone release in humans.
• Example high levels of a hormone inhibit the
  production of more hormone, whereas low levels of
  a hormone stimulate the production of more
  hormone.
• The liver plays a role in negative feedback by
  removing the hormones from the blood and breaking
  them down.
• Negative feedback works like trying to maintain a
  certain speed by pressing or releasing the gas
  pedal.

In negative feedback, a secondary substance
blocks production of its initial stimulating
substance.
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Succession

• Once new species start moving into this newly
  formed habitat, they go through process called
  succession.
• Succession a somewhat regular progression of
  species replacement
• Primary Succession succession that occurs where
  life has not existed before
• Volcanic island
• Secondary Succession succession that occurs in
  areas where there has been previous growth
• Abandoned field

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Trophic Levels

• Trophic Level one of the steps in a food chain
  or pyramid.
• First Level (lowest level) producers which
  perform photosynthesis and sometimes absorb
  nitrogen gas with the help of nitrogen-fixing
  bacteria.
• Second Level Herbivores, which eat primary
  producers. Use microorganisms to help digest
  plant materials in their guts.
• Third Level Secondary consumers animals that
  eat other animals.
• Fourth Level Tertiary Consumers carnivores that
  eat other carnivores
• Detritivores organisms that obtain their energy
  from the organic wastes produced at all trophic
  levels.
• Decomposers Bacteria and fungi are decomposers
  because they cause decay.
• Decay is very important because it allows for the
  recycling of nutrients.

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The Pyramid of Energy

• Ecologists often illustrate the flow of energy
  through an ecosystem using an energy pyramid.
• Energy Pyramid a diagram in which each Trophic
  level is represented by blocks stacked one
  another.
• The width of the block indicates how much energy
  is stored at each trophic level.
• Only about 1/10 of the energy in a trophic level
  is found in the next trophic level, so it takes a
  pyramid shape.

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The Water Cycle

• Of all nonliving components of an ecosystem,
  water has the greatest impact on the inhabitants
• Precipitation (rain and snow)
• Ground water (water stored under ground)
• Ultimately the water cycle is caused by heating
  by the sun leading to evaporation.
• Living Systems
• Transpiration

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The Carbon Cycle

• Carbon cycles between the nonliving environment
  and living organisms.
• The nutrient cycling of carbon is very closely
  related to the cycling of Oxygen (O2).
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air/water is used by
  plants, algae, or bacteria in photosynthesis to
  make new organic nutrients (sugars). Carbon
  atoms can return to the pool of CO2 in the air
  and water in three ways
• Respiration
• Combustion
• Erosion

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The Phosphorus Cycle

• Phosphorus is an essential part of our bodies.
• Essential for ATP and DNA creation.
• Phosphorous is usually stored in soil and rock as
  calcium phosphate.
• It dissolves in water to form phosphate ions,
  PO43-.
• This phosphate is absorbed by the roots of plants
  and used to build organic molecules.
• Animals eat the plants and reuse the organic
  phosphorus.

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The Nitrogen Cycle
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• The atmosphere is 78 percent nitrogen gas, N2.
• In spite of how much nitrogen is around us, most
  organisms cannot use it in that form because of
  the strong bonds between the two N atoms.
• Some bacteria can break the bond and make
  ammonia, NH3 in a process called Nitrogen
  Fixation.

• Nitrogen Fixation the process by which gaseous
  nitrogen is converted into ammonia, a compound
  that organisms can use to make amino acids.
• Nitrogen fixation is performed by bacteria that
  live in the soil and root nodules (swellings) of
  plants like alder trees.

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Acid Rain

• Coal-burning power plants make smoke with lots of
  sulfur, because the coal contained lots of
  sulfur.
• Sulfur introduced into the atmosphere combines
  with water vapor to form sulfuric acid.
• Sulfuric acid carried back to Earths surface in
  precipitation (rain or snow) is called Acid
  Rain.
• Lowering the pH of water (making it more acidic)
  can cause death of organisms such as lake
  animals, tree root fungi, and plant death.

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Ozone Destruction

• The ozone is being destroyed primarily by a class
  of chemicals called Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
  CFCs are normally stable.
• CFCs are used as coolants in refrigerators and
  air conditions, as propellants in aerosol spray
  cans, and foaming agents in plastic-foam
  creation.
• It turns out, high in the atmosphere where we
  find the ozone layer, CFCs are not so stable.
• They lose a chlorine atom, which enters into a
  series of reactions that destroy the Ozone (O3)
  and turn it into regular Oxygen (O2).
• CFCS are now banned as aerosol can propellants in
  the U.S.

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The Greenhouse Effect

• Our planet would be cold except that we have a
  layer of Greenhouse Gases containing water vapor,
  carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide
  keeping it warm because the bonds between these
  atoms absorbs solar energy as heat radiates from
  earth. This is called the Greenhouse Effect.
• Greenhouse Effect heat is trapped within the
  atmosphere of the Earth in the same way that
  glass traps heat in a greenhouse.
• Due to the burning of fossil fuels, we have
  increased the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

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Types of Chemical Pollution

• Biological Magnification the accumulation of
  increasingly large amounts of toxic substances
  within each successive link of the food chain.
• In birds, DDT causes eggs to be thin, and
  fragilethese eggs often break.
• This was the worst in predatory birds because
  they are high in the food chain and occupy a high
  trophic level.
• As such, the numbers of predatory birds dwindled.
• In 1972 the use of DDT was restricted in the U.S.

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Climate, Temperature, and Moisture