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Title: International Terrorism


1
International Terrorism
  • Andreas Wimmer

2
Fundamental Questions
  1. Is Terrorism warfare?
  2. Is terror a legitimate tool?/ What is
    international terrorism?
  3. Is terrorism more predominant in the post cold
    war area?
  4. Is 9/11 significant?
  5. Mass casualties, a serious threat?
  6. What counter measures we can take against the
    threat?

3
(No Transcript)
4
Is Terrorism a legitimate tool?
5
Is Terrorism warfare?
  • Colin Gray thesis All Terrorist are Soldiers.
  • Another Bloody Century, Future Warfare
  • Legitimating terrorism for the sake of war!
  • Terror is a form of warfare in both conventional
    and insurgency wars.
  • Terrorism against states or individuals not in a
    state of insecurity or declaring martial law
    remains a crime!

6
Is Terrorism warfare? Depends on the perspective
7
Is terror a legitimate tool?
  • Philosophical explanation (definition on what is
    right? Or Who is right?)
  • East Timor, War of Independence (17751783),
    French Revolution, Israel (1948)
  • Pragmatic explanation
  • Jurisprudence (resistance movements)
  • International Law (Geneva Convention, U.N
    Charter)
  • Adversary view (means are justified)
  • Revolutionary warfare (Banastre Tarleton)
  • War of Independence (Algerian Civil War 1990)
  • Struggle, freedom fights or idiosyncratic
    millenarian movements
  • Mahdi movement (Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd
    Allah 1845 - 1885 )

8
Jurisprudence on terrorism
  1. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
    Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons,
    including Diplomatic Agents, New York, 14
    December 1973
  2. International Convention against the Taking of
    Hostages, New York, 17 December 1979
  3. International Convention for the Suppression of
    Terrorist Bombings, New York, 15 December 1997
  4. International Convention for the Suppression of
    the Financing of Terrorism, New York, 9 December
    1999
  5. Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts
    Committed on Board Aircraft, Tokyo, 14 September
    1963 ()
  6. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful
    Seizure of Aircraft, The Hague, 16 December 1970
    ()
  7. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
    against the Safety of Civil Aviation, Montreal,
    23 September 1971 ()
  8. Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear
    Material, Vienna, 3 March 1980 ()
  9. Protocol on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of
    Violence at Airports Serving International Civil
    Aviation, supplementary to the Convention for the
    Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety
    of Civil Aviation, Montreal, 24 February 1988 ()
  10. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
    against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, Rome,
    10 March 1988
  11. Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
    against the Safety of Fixed Platforms located on
    the Continental Shelf, Rome, 10 March 1988
  12. Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives
    for the Purpose of Detection, Montreal, 1 March
    1991 ()
  13. 1949 Geneva Convention  

9
Is terror a legitimate tool?
  • ICRC, Geneva Convention, UN Charter - a clear NO!
  • Criminal Code a clear NO!
  • Political perspective well fuzzy, as and if
    opportune (for state) for adversary always YES!
  • Colonists (US War of Independence) - YES!
  • Beaten on the battlefield, Francis Marion fixed
    British forces away from the main continental
    contingents. Actions by the British justified
    Colonists retaliatory actions

10
Is terror a legitimate tool?
  • International humanitarian law prohibits without
    exception all acts of terror during international
    or non-international armed conflicts.
  • This body of law also requires States to prevent
    and punish breaches. Acts of terrorism may
    constitute war crimes, subject to international
    jurisdiction, and the International Criminal
    Court may be competent to hear such cases.
  • At the same time, the fight against terrorism and
    the prosecution of persons suspected of terrorism
    are subject to international humanitarian law if
    they take place during armed conflict. That body
    of law does not constitute an obstacle to the
    fight against terrorism. Indeed, suspected
    terrorists can be prosecuted for acts of
    terrorism. But even the members of armed forces
    or illegal fighters suspected of acts of
    terrorism are protected by the Geneva Conventions
    and are entitled to judicial guarantees if put on
    trial.
  • http//www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/5
    FLCCX/File/irrc_847_Gasser.pdf
  • http//www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList74
    /A728AA89F447446BC1256C5C00236A3B

11
International terrorism
12
Is 9/11 significant? - Perspectives
  • Political
  • Emotional resonance
  • Starting now, life in America is about
    emergencies rather than ease
  • Economical, Constitutional
  • Patriot Act, curbing of civil liberties
  • Economical switch to the Euro threatens US
    economy Iraqs invasion has economical
    justifications
  • Ideological/ Religious
  • Muslim perspective. Surah 911 does not appear
    relevant, but Surah 9111 is highly relevant
    because it firmly promises heavenly gardens to
    those who slay and are slain in Allah's way.
  • Some historians noted that September 11, 1683
    the Battle of Vienna, was the turning point in a
    250-year struggle between the forces of the
    Christian West and the Islamic Ottoman Empire.

http//www.progressive.org/node/1777 James
Ashcroft, Virgin Books, Making A Killing, page
215
13
Is 9/11 significant? - Perspectives
  • Strategic
  • Hegemonic change of the United States
  • Regional changes initiated
  • Social
  • Impact on the American soul
  • Attack against the homeland first since 1941

14
U.S perspective
  • Title 22, US Code, Section 2656f(d) (used by the
    Department of State and the CIA)
  • Terrorism is premeditated, politically motivated
    violence perpetrated against non-combatant
    targets by sub-national groups or clandestine
    agents, usually intended to influence an
    audience.
  • International terrorism is terrorism involving
    citizens or the territory of more than one
    country.
  • A Terrorist group is any group practicing, or
    which has significant subgroups which practice,
    international terrorism.
  • Federal Bureau of Investigation
  • International terrorism involves violent acts or
    acts dangerous to human life that are a violation
    of the criminal laws of the United States or any
    state, or that would be a criminal violation if
    committed within the jurisdiction of the United
    States or any state. These acts appear to be
    intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian
    population, influence the policy of a government
    by intimidation or coercion, or affect the
    conduct of a government by assassination or
    kidnapping. International terrorist acts occur
    outside the United States or transcend national
    boundaries in terms of the means by which they
    are accomplished, the persons they appear
    intended to coerce or intimidate, or the locale
    in which the perpetrators operate or seek asylum.

15
U.S perspective
  • U.S. State Departments official list of states
    supporting terrorism
  • Political mandated by U.S Congress
  • to take the moral high ground against terrorism
    with little political cost.
  • With no objective criteria for deciding when
    countries should be placed on or removed from the
    list, inclusion is a purely political decision.
  • Syria
  • State Department testified in 1995 that it had no
    evidence of Syrian involvement in terrorism since
    1984!
  • Serbia
  • Not on the State Department list despite its
    support of Bosnian Serbs committing mass
    atrocities and terrorist acts in Bosnia.

http//www.criminology.fsu.edu/transcrime/article
s/counteringterrorism.htm
16
What is international terrorism?
  • Religious terrorism
  • Tends to be more violent then secular terrorism
  • Amateur terrorism
  • Lethal, self inspired, indirect sponsored
  • Hamas vs. PLO
  • Trade Center bombing 1983 (400, 6 killed, more
    than 1,000 injured, 180ft. Six storey deep
    crater, 550 million damage
  • Professional terrorism
  • Core cadre provide the foundation for amateurs
  • Outome
  • Accelerate in lethality since 1990

http//www.ciaonet.org/wps/hob01/
17
What is international terrorism?
  • Agro-terrorism
  • A subset of bioterrorism, agro-terrorism would
    involve the use of a biological agent against the
    agricultural industry and/or food supply.
  • Cyber-terrorism
  • A terrorist attack aimed at crippling the
    country's networking infrastructure through the
    use of viruses etc, which also results in
    violence against persons or property.
  • Narco-terrorism
  • This term does not refer to a method of attack,
    but rather to a description of the link between
    narcotics trafficking and terrorism it involves
    being a direct or indirect participant in drug
    trafficking and using the profits to advance or
    finance terrorist activities.
  • WMD terrorism
  • A terrorist attack utilizing a weapon of mass
    destruction (WMD), i.e. the use of a chemical,
    biological, nuclear or radiological weapon
  • http//www.tamilnation.org/tamileelam/armedstruggl
    e/terrorism/index.htm
  • http//www.armscontrolcenter.org/terrorism/101/def
    initions.html

18
Conclusions
  • No conclusive definition but commonly accepted
    legal, moral definitions of what terrorism is
    generally perceived
  • Interpretation subject to change and often
    defined by the type of response
  • US perspective (direct historically kinetic)
  • European perspective (indirect)
  • Asian perspectives (mixed)
  • Adversaries perspective (direct historically
    kinetic, only when defeated pattern changes)

19
U.S policy example
  • Make no concessions to terrorists and strike no
    deals
  • Bring terrorists to justice for their crimes
  • Isolate and apply pressure on states that sponsor
    terrorism to force them to change their behavior
    and,
  • Bolster the counterterrorism capabilities of
    countries that work with the United States and
    require assistance.

http//www.fas.org/irp/threat/commission.html
20
Historical Statistical Data
21
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22
Historical view 1997 data
23
Most deadliest groups 1997 data
24
1997 The Year of Violence
25
Terrorist Incidents by Region 01/01/1968 -
12/24/2006 
Region Incidents Injuries Fatalities
Africa 1059 9208 3496
East Central Asia 242 5584 253
Eastern Europe 1405 5100 1984
Latin America the Caribbean 3616 3854 2322
Middle East / Persian Gulf 12424 44435 22014
North America 576 4221 3566
South Asia 4604 22097 8071
Southeast Asia Oceania 1556 5090 1791
Western Europe 5473 5642 1439
TOTAL 30955 105231 44936


26
Terrorist Incidents by Target 01/01/1968 -
12/24/2006 
Target Incidents Injuries Fatalities
Airports Airlines 4 166 43
Business 23 2962 2913
Diplomatic 22 5739 414
Government 20 344 364
Journalists Media 4 92 32
Maritime 1 39 17
Military 24 296 430
NGO 3 6 19
Other 14 366 190
Police 12 338 88
Private Citizens Property 35 1629 287
Religious Figures/Institutions 3 69 25
Tourists 5 405 223
Transportation 29 847 260
Unknown 14 3 15
Utilities 1 0 6
TOTAL 214 13301 5326
27
1980 1990/ 1990 - 2006
Month Incidents Injuries Fatalities
January 1798 4688 2030
February 1521 4941 2211
March 1622 11929 2330
April 1410 3963 1789
May 1401 4653 1929
June 1573 4751 2051
July 1816 4795 2173
August 1851 11365 2937
September 1529 7941 5373
October 1736 5812 2512
November 1670 4765 1983
December 1828 4851 2108
TOTAL 19755 74454 29426


Month Incidents Injuries Fatalities
January 238 176 165
February 240 578 157
March 341 1060 361
April 327 1983 310
May 265 314 109
June 279 277 464
July 278 990 223
August 302 619 193
September 315 1100 447
October 315 1098 541
November 236 389 370
December 276 765 527
TOTAL 3412 9349 3867
MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Database RAND
28
Evolution of Terrorism
29
Opposing Viewpoints(2000 2004)
  • Is Terrorism a Serious Threat
  • Terrorism is a Serious Threat (Hoffman, Paul
    Bremer!)
  • The Threat of Terrorism is Overstated (1997-2000)
    Larry C. Johnson/ William Church
  • WMD Do Not Pose a Terrorist Threat
  • Terrorism Against Information Systems Is a Threat
  • The Threat of Terrorism is Being Reduced (John
    Ashcroft! - 2004)
  • Biological Terrorism Is a Serious Threat (2004)
  • The Threat of Biological Terrorism has been
    exaggerated (2004)
  • America Is a Serious Terrorist Threat (2004)
  • Southeast Asia Terrorism Is a Serious Problem
    (2004)
  • Narco-terrorism Is a Serious Threat (2004)

30
Opposing Viewpoints(2000 2004)
  • What Motivates Terrorism?
  • Religious Fanaticism Motivates Terrorists
  • Postwar Developments Motivate Terrorists
  • Democracy Encourages Terrorism
  • Economic Distress Motivates Terrorists (2000
    2004)
  • Israeli Actions Motivate Middle East Terrorists
  • A combination of factors motivate Terrorists
  • What Are the Causes of Terrorism?
  • Islam Encourages Terrorism (2004)
  • Islam Does Not Encourage Terrorism (2004)
  • Economic Problems Cause Terrorism (2004)
  • Israel's Occupation of Palestine Causes Terrorism
    (Hamas 2004)
  • Palestinian Hatred of Israel Causes Terrorism

31
Opposing Viewpoints(2000 2004)
  • Can Terrorism be Justified?
  • Resistance to Tyranny Justifies Violence against
    U.S government
  • Resistance to British Rule Justifies Bombings in
    Northern Ireland
  • Bombings in Northern Ireland Cannot be Justified
  • American Policies in the Middle East Justify
    Islamic Terrorism (Osama Bin Laden interview)
  • Israeli Occupation of Palestine Justifies Islamic
    Terrorism
  • The Islamic Faith Does Not Condone Terrorism

32
Opposing Viewpoints(2000 2004)
  • How Should the United States respond?
  • Tougher Aviation Security Measures Will Help
    Reduce Terrorism
  • Tougher Aviation Security Measures Will Not
    Reduce Terrorism
  • The U.S Should Retaliate Against Terrorist Groups
  • Retaliation Efforts Against Terrorists Are
    Fruitless
  • Expanding the FBIs Power is a necessary Response
    to Terrorism (Louis J. Freeh)
  • CT Legislation is a Dangerous Expansion of
    Governmental Powers
  • How Should Americas Domestic War on Terrorism Be
    Conducted? (2004)
  • Antiterrorism Legislation Will Make America Safer
  • Antiterrorism Legislation Threatens Civil
    Liberties
  • Racial Profiling Will Make America Safer
  • Racial Profiling Will Make America Less Safe
  • Immigration Must Be Restricted to Protect America
    Against Terrorists
  • Immigrants Enhance National Security

33
Opposing Viewpoints(2004) surprise entry
  • How Should the International Community Respond to
    Terrorism?
  • The UN Should Lead the Fight Against Terrorism
    vs. Should Not Lead the Fight
  • War Is an Appropriate Response to Terrorism
  • War Is the Wrong Response to Terrorism
  • Brokering a Peace Between Israel Palestinians
    Can Reduce Terrorism vs. Will Not Reduce
    Terrorism

34
Old vs. New Terror
  • Old terror (system/state terror?)
  • Mid-eastern PLO (supported by Stasi ergo the
    Soviets!) nationalistic
  • Defined, set of political, social or economic
    objectives, taking credit with communiqués or
    explaining their actions
  • Marxist-Leninist movements
  • South America
  • FARC, MRTA, SL, Sandinistas
  • Europe
  • RAF, Red Brigades
  • Nationalistic
  • IRA, ETA

35
New forms of Terrorism
  • New so new (Hoffman)
  • Religious imperatives encapsulates the confluence
    of the adversary, motivation and rationale
  • Less cohesive organizational entities
  • Amorphous, religious or millenarian aims
  • Obscure, zealous nationalist religious groups
  • Self started, home grown
  • Converted from nationalistic aims to
    divine-inspired, mystical, vehemently
    anti-government

36
1980 1990/ 1990 - 2006
Month Incidents Injuries Fatalities
January 1798 4688 2030
February 1521 4941 2211
March 1622 11929 2330
April 1410 3963 1789
May 1401 4653 1929
June 1573 4751 2051
July 1816 4795 2173
August 1851 11365 2937
September 1529 7941 5373
October 1736 5812 2512
November 1670 4765 1983
December 1828 4851 2108
TOTAL 19755 74454 29426


Month Incidents Injuries Fatalities
January 238 176 165
February 240 578 157
March 341 1060 361
April 327 1983 310
May 265 314 109
June 279 277 464
July 278 990 223
August 302 619 193
September 315 1100 447
October 315 1098 541
November 236 389 370
December 276 765 527
TOTAL 3412 9349 3867
MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Database RAND
37
(No Transcript)
38
New forms of Terrorism
  • Ethical/nationalistic
  • Stronger ideological reasons
  • Broad based social movement, no longer close knit
    former war veterans.
  • Old Al Qaeda not entirely superseded
  • Centralized targeting, ideological direction
    operational support
  • Emergence of autonomous, self-recruited self
    starter cells
  • Coalesce spontaneous plan attack without
    reference or active involvement of the global
    jihad

http//www.iiss.org/publications
39
Is terrorism more predominant in the post cold
war area?
  • Predominant extremist fundamental causes are deep
    rooted sovereign political state issues.
    Terrorism in the post-Cold War world is tied to
    the sovereign state system more than ever before.
  • Since 1991 terrorism has always been motivated by
    parochial ethnic, national, and religious
    loyalties than by universalism ideologies.
    Terrorism is a international problems extending
    beyond sovereignty and rooted in the sovereign
    state system rather than less.
  • Focused on creating their own revolutionary
    Islamic regimes rather then submerging them in
    utopian Ummah of the Bin Laden world. However
    the Ummah concept does have its attractors.
  • This is in sharp contrast to the Cold War years
  • Assumption that terrorism was primarily a product
    of an international conspiracy created by the
    Soviet Union to spread communism and Soviet
    foreign policy. That assumption was never totally
    accurate.

Cusimano, Maryann K.  2000. Beyond Sovereignty
Issues for a Global Agenda. Pp. 96-107
http//www.criminology.fsu.edu/transcrime/articles
/counteringterrorism.htm
40
Commonalities
41
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42
Commonalities
  • Goals, strategies, operations, organization,
    ideology, Target, objective, motive, perpetrator,
    and legitimacy or legality of the act.
  • Escalation of force Trigger for violence
  • Intifada (Jewish truck driver overrun 5
    Palestinians) exploit situation for political
    aims
  • (Aggressive) response by governments

43
Commonalities
  • Visuals, need for expression
  • Terrorist groups were dealing with, I think,
    are bound to visuals.
  • Government platitudes
  • All insurgents are terrorists
  • Poor law enforcement
  • Corruption (Azahari, 50,000 IDR)
  • Lack of transparent governance
  • Social grievances (Thailand)

44
Mass casualties, a serious threat?
  • "Trends in terrorism over the past 15 years
    indicate that loosely linked transnational
    networks motivated primarily by religious
    ideologies seeking mass casualties are replacing
    more 'traditional' terrorists who are motivated
    primarily by politics," says Jason Pate, a senior
    research associate at the Monterey Institute of
    International Studies. "These ominous trends
    suggest the potential for mass-casualty attacks,
    and because biological agents could be used in
    this fashion, the potential for mass-casualty
    bioterrorism may be at hand."

http//usinfo.state.gov/journals/itps/1101/ijpe/pj
63pate-2.htm
45
Mass casualties, a serious threat?
  • Definition of mass casualties reached new meaning
    at the 9/11 attacks
  • Al Qaeda model, once a year but big!
  • High media impact
  • High casualties
  • Aggressive response by state to alienate masses

46
Mass casualties, a serious threat?
  • Strains the state security apparatus
  • Strains response systems
  • To maintain stability and effectiveness of
    medical, political and Internal Security systems
  • Objectives to weaken and collapse the state,
    society and the will to fight
  • High levels of casualties result in emotional
    response

47
Countermeasures
48
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49
Components of Counter Terror policy
  • Public policy diplomacy
  • Responsibility of political leadership
  • Political aspects of terrorism
  • Law enforcement public security
  • Deals with the criminal aspects apprehension
    judiciary process
  • Intelligence
  • Terrorism are largely covert actions
  • Identify intend and prevent, apprehend or
    divert/foil the attack
  • The use of force, including covert action
  • proactive in contrast to the mainly reactive
    tactics of law enforcement and public security.
  • Conciliation
  • Re-integration of former adversaries to return to
    society Process of public healing

50
What counter measures we can take against the
threat?
  • Addressing the ideological battle
  • Recognizing the strong bond within the social
    cell unit structure
  • Zero tolerance policy (French position)
  • Countering the media advantage
  • Denying battle space, refuge/sanctuaries
  • Identifying the less evidence more gut feeling
    is needed. Intuitive response

51
Principal Strategy
  • Terrorism cannot be treated as a monolithic
    threat.
  • Kinetics is only one aspect. CT strategies are a
    means to the End
  • Moreover, as much as we may wish to focus on the
    terror tactics and terrorist means, we cannot
    overlook the ends.
  • Policy response must incorporate understanding of
    terrorist strategy
  • Terrorist groups evolve, so must the governments
    response
  • Multiple response strategy
  • Address and recognize grievance by population
  • Secure the population
  • Bolster state legitimacy, demonstrate state
    effectiveness regarding insecurity.
  • Build coalition if necessary cross border promote
    social values

52
If history is a teacher..
  • Every successful CT strategy included
  • Fair and firm leadership
  • Clear defined policy objectives
  • Homegrown political will desire to change and
    resisting extremist forces
  • Unified response command, but defined roles for
  • Police
  • Intelligence
  • Military
  • Strategic Intelligence

53
I.C.A.R.U.L.S.K/ I.K.A.R.U.S
  • Intelligence
  • Community/Kinetics
  • Authority
  • Religious
  • Unconventional
  • Security

54
Intelligence
  • Small focused
  • Credible accepted field officers
  • Promote an environment of trust
  • Population, informers and build support base
  • Support collection
  • Disseminate at tactical response level
  • Exploit at strategic level
  • Abuses by the adversary

55
(No Transcript)
56
Ideological battle
  • Web mail, Internet, home made video clips, hand
    phone cameras
  • Muaskar al-Battar (The Camp of al-Battar, the
    name of Mohammeds sword)
  • Sawt al-Jihad (The Voice of Jihad)
  • Total empowerment for moderate forces
  • Education, education, education in schools on
    presenting the dangers of extremism

57
(No Transcript)
58
Authority
  • Provide an recognized authority
  • Health support
  • Property ownership
  • Respected responsive police
  • Central government leadership at local and
    regional level
  • Education

59
Religion
  • Ensure religion is not hijacked by extremism
  • Maintain control on religious teachings
  • Expose and exploit identified false believers or
    preachers of hate and dissent
  • Maintain close relationship between religious
    groups

60
Unconventional
  • Community Development Programs
  • Sports, Children, Elderly
  • Transportation
  • Road conditions
  • Media, print and modern communications
  • Football game (Soviets loved German TV,
    Bay(be)-watch)
  • Emergency support in case of needs
  • Water supplies, telephone, electricity, heat
  • Direct Action
  • Use of force counter extreme violence, brutality
    or bestiality
  • Human Aspect

61
Community
  • Must be immediately part of the intelligence
    combined efforts
  • Listen grievances and provide sustainable
    protection
  • Support basic needs (water, shelter, health)
  • Keep it simple and honest
  • Identify and respect customs
  • Shelter, Hospitality Retaliation tribal concepts

62
Law Enforcement
  • Apprehension
  • Functioning court
  • Prison process
  • Investigation of capital crime and persecution of
    capital crimes

63
State
  • Transparent, honest and better then the adversary
  • Economical supportive
  • Defined leadership, clear, concise and perceived
    as incorruptible
  • Clear political and strategic mandates
  • Supportive educative of its citizens
  • but, avoid the rumor drivers

64
Kinetics
  • Restraint but effective
  • Avoid pink misting
  • Overly aggressive use of precision ammunition
  • Public education of being at war means loosing
    men
  • Clear defined use of force at strategic
    tactical level
  • Increase in SOF, CT forces globally

65
Conclusions
  • If History is a teacher!

66
Deep rifts within the political spectrum
  • Fighting terrorism, what terrorism is generally
    is, the concept of terror, strong support
  • The interventions in Iraq strong diverse views
    increasingly less supported
  • Afghanistan morally supported, the aim, goals
    adversary are clear!
  • Fear of increasing governance influencing civil
    liberties under the mantle fighting terrorism
  • Clash of civilization is feared dividing
    societies
  • Bilateral relationship are not exploited enough
  • Terrorism broad stroked with war is unlikely
    providing a solution.

67
References Perspectives
  • Hamas in its own words http//www.jewishvirtuallib
    rary.org/jsource/Terrorism/Hamas1.html
  • Cyber terrorism http//www.techweb.com/wire/story/
    TWB19980923S0016
  • http//www.criminology.fsu.edu/transcrime/articles
    /counteringterrorism.htm
  • James Ashcroft, Making A Killing, Virgin Books,
    pg. 215
  • http//usinfo.state.gov/journals/itps/1101/ijpe/pj
    63pate-2.htm
  • Cusimano, Maryann K.  2000. Beyond Sovereignty
    Issues for a Global Agenda. Pp. 96-107
  • http//www.iiss.org/publications
  • MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Database RAND
  • http//www.fas.org/irp/threat/commission.html
  • http//www.tamilnation.org/tamileelam/armedstruggl
    e/terrorism/index.htm
  • http//www.armscontrolcenter.org/terrorism/101/def
    initions.html
  • http//www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/5
    FLCCX/File/irrc_847_Gasser.pdf
  • http//www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList74
    /A728AA89F447446BC1256C5C00236A3B
  • http//www.ciaonet.org/wps/hob01/
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