Feedback, Reinforcement, and Intrinsic Motivation

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CHAPTER 6
Feedback, Reinforcement, and Intrinsic Motivation
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Session Outline

• Understanding Feedback and Reinforcement

• Feedback and Reinforcement

• Principles of reinforcement

• Approaches to influencing behavior

• Positive reinforcement principles

• Punishment and guidelines for punishment

• Modifying behavior in sport

(continued)
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Session Outline

• Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Rewards

• Cognitive evaluation theory

• How extrinsic rewards affect intrinsic motivation
  in sport

• Increasing intrinsic motivation

• Flow A Special Case of Intrinsic Motivation

• Flow and elements of flow

• Factors that facilitate or disrupt flow

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Understanding Feedback and Reinforcement
What Is Reinforcement?
The use of rewards and punishment that increases
or decreases the likelihood of a similar response
occurring in the future
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Basic Principles of Reinforcement

• If doing something results in a good consequence
  (such as being rewarded), people tend to try to
  repeat the behavior to achieve additional
  positive reinforcement.

• If doing something results in an unpleasant
  consequence (such as being punished), people tend
  not to repeat the behavior to avoid more negative
  consequences.

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Principles of Reinforcement
Why principles of reinforcement are complex

• People react differently to the same
  reinforcement.

• People are unable to repeat desirable behaviors.

• People receive different reinforcers in different
  situations.

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Approaches to Influencing Behavior
Positive Approach
Focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior, which
increases the likelihood of desirable responses
occurring in the future
Negative Approach
Focuses on punishing undesirable behaviors, which
should lead to future redirection of these
inappropriate behaviors
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Approaches to Influencing Behavior

• Most coaches and instructors combine positive and
  negative approaches.

• Sport psychologists agree that the predominant
  approach with physical activity and sport
  participants should be positive because the
  negative approach often instills fear in
  participants.

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Positive Reinforcement Principles
1. Choose effective reinforcers (e.g., social,
material, activity, special outings).
2. Choose timing or schedule of reinforcement.
? Early learningcontinuous and immediate
reinforcement desirable
? Learned skillintermittent and immediate
reinforcement desirable
3. Reward appropriate behaviorschoose the
proper behaviors to reward.
(continued)
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Positive Reinforcement Principles
4. Shape or reinforce successful approximations
of difficult behaviors.
5. Reward performance, as well as outcome.
6. Reward effort.
7. Reward emotional and social skill.
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Providing Performance Feedback

• Provide knowledge of results (feedback regarding
  the correctness of an action).

• Provide sincere and contingent feedback.

• Provide motivational and informational feedback.

• Use varied types of feedbackverbal praise,
  facial expressions, and pats on the back.

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Punishment
Punishment can control and change behavior, but
80 to 90 of reinforcement should be positive.
Drawbacks of punishment

• Punishment can arouse fear of failure.

• Punishment can act as a reinforcer.

• Punishment can create an unpleasant, aversive
  learning environment.

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Guidelines for Using Punishment

• Be consistent by giving everyone the same type of
  punishment for breaking similar rules.

• Punish the behavior, not the personconvey to the
  individual that its his or her behavior that
  needs to change.

• Allow athletes input in making up punishments
  for breaking rules.

(continued)
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Guidelines for Using Punishment

• Do not use physical activity as a punishment.

• Make sure the punishment is not perceived as a
  reward or simply as attention.

• Impose punishment impersonallydo not berate the
  person or yell. Simply inform the person of the
  punishment.

(continued)
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Guidelines for Using Punishment

• Do not punish athletes for making errors while
  playing.

• Do not embarrass individuals in front of
  teammates or classmates.

• Use punishment sparingly, but enforce it when you
  use it.

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Modifying Behavior in Sport
Behavior Modification
Systematic application of the basic principles of
reinforcement to change behavior Contingency
management behavioral coaching behavior
modification
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Modifying Behavior in Sport
Behavioral techniques
Have been used to effectively modify sport and
physical education behaviors

• Feedback and reinforcement in football

• Behavioral coaching in golf

• Recording and shaping in basketball

• Improving attendance in swimming

• Inappropriate behaviors in tennis

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Behavior Program Principles

• Target the behaviors you want to change.

• Define targeted behaviors.

• Record the behaviors.

• Provide meaningful feedback.

• State outcomes clearly.

• Tailor reward systems.

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Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Rewards

• Intrinsic motivation means striving inwardly to
  be competent and self-determining.

• Basic question Do extrinsic rewards undermine
  intrinsic motivation?

• Research shows that being paid for working on an
  intrinsically interesting activity can decrease a
  persons intrinsic motivation for the activity.

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Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Rewards
Classic studies

• Deci (1971, 1972) SOMA puzzles

• Lepper and Greene (1975) Nursery school,
  expected and unexpected rewards

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Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Rewards
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
How rewards are perceived is critical in
determining whether intrinsic motivation
increases or decreases.
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Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Controlling Aspects
Rewards that are perceived to control a person
decrease intrinsic motivation, whereas rewards
that contribute to an internal locus of causality
increase intrinsic motivation.
Informational Aspects
Rewards that increase the information aspect and
provide positive feedback about competence
increase intrinsic motivation, whereas rewards
that suggest the person is not competent decrease
intrinsic motivation.
(continued)
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Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Functional Significance of the Event
How a reward affects intrinsic motivation depends
on whether the recipient perceives it to be more
controlling or more informational.
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How Extrinsic Rewards Affect Intrinsic
Motivation in Sport

• Scholarships Athletic scholarships can either
  decrease or increase athletes levels of
  intrinsic motivation, depending on which is more
  emphasized by the coachthe controlling or
  informational aspects.

(continued)
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How Extrinsic Rewards Affect Intrinsic
Motivation in Sport

• Competitive success and failure Competitive
  success tends to increase intrinsic motivation,
  whereas competitive failure tends to decrease
  intrinsic motivation.

• Feedback Positive feedback increases intrinsic
  motivation.

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Other Determinants of Intrinsic Motivation
Higher levels of intrinsic motivation are related
to the following

• Playing for an autonomous (democratic) versus a
  controlling coach

• Participating in a recreational versus
  competitive league

• High versus low perceived competence

• High versus low perceived control

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Increasing Intrinsic Motivation

• Provide for successful experiences.

• Give rewards contingent on performance.

• Use verbal and nonverbal praise.

• Vary content and sequence of practice drills.

• Involve participants in decisions.

• Set realistic performance goals.

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Flow A Special Case of Intrinsic Motivation
Flow
A holistic, intrinsically motivating sensation
that people feel when they are totally involved
in an activity or are on automatic pilot
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The Flow Model
Essential elements of flow

• Balance of challenge and skills

• Complete absorption in the activity

• Clear goals

• Merging of action and awareness

• Total concentration on the task

(continued)
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The Flow Model
Essential elements of flow

• Loss of self-consciousness

• A sense of control

• No goals or rewards external to the activity

• Transformation of time

• Effortless movement

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The Flow Model
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Controllability of Flow States
Although athletes cannot control flow, they can
increase the probability of its occurring.
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Flow How to Achieve It

• Be motivated to perform (maintain a balance
  between goals and skills).

• Achieve optimal arousal before performing.

• Maintain an appropriate focus (stay in the
  present, focus on key points).

• Use precompetitive and competitive plans and
  preparation.

(continued)
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Flow How to Achieve It

• Achieve optimal physical preparation and
  readiness.

• Experience optimal environmental and situational
  conditions.

• Exhibit confidence and positive mental attitude.

• Have positive team play and interaction (positive
  play and shared purposes).

• Feel good about performance

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Factors That Prevent Flow From Occurring
Non-optimal physical preparation and readiness

• Injury

• Fatigue

• Not feeling good physically

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Factors That Prevent Flow From Occurring
Non-optimal environmental or situational
conditions

• External stresses

• Unwanted crowd response

• Uncontrollable influences of the event

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Factors That Prevent Flow From Occurring
Lack of confidence or a negative mental state

• Negative thinking

• Self-doubt

• No control of mental state

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Factors That Prevent Flow From Occurring
Inappropriate focus

• Thinking too much

• Worrying about what others are doing

• Frustration with teammates effort

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Factors That Prevent Flow From Occurring
Problem with precompetitive preparation

• Poor precompetitive preparation

• Distraction before competition

• Interruption to precompetitive preparation

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Factors That Prevent Flow From Occurring
Lacking motivation to perform

• No goals

• Lack of challenge

• Low arousal or motivation

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Factors That Prevent Flow From Occurring
Non-optimal arousal level before competition

• Not feeling relaxed

• Feeling too relaxed

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Factors That Prevent Flow From Occurring
Negative team play and interactions

• Team not performing well

• Not feeling part of the team

• Negative talk within the team

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Factors That Prevent Flow From Occurring
Performance going poorly

• Unforced errors

• Poor technique

• Things not going as planned

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Factors That Disrupt Flow
Non-optimal environmental and situational
influences

• Stoppage in play

• What the opposition is doing

• Negative refereeing decisions

• Inappropriate, negative, or no feedback

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Factors That Disrupt Flow
Problems with physical readiness or physical state

• Lack of physical preparation

• Injury during the competition

• Fatigue

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Factors That Disrupt Flow
Problems with team performance or interactions

• Negative talk on the field

• Team not playing well

• Lack of team interactions

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Factors That Disrupt Flow
Inappropriate focus

• Worrying about competitors ability

• Daydreaming

• Loss of concentration

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Factors That Disrupt Flow
Doubting or putting pressure on self

• Self-doubt

• Putting pressure on self