Title: Chapter Five
1Chapter Five
- First Two Years
- Biosocial Development
2Body Changes
- Rapid changes
- Consequences of neglect severe
3Body Size
- Most notable time for physical changes
- in each of the first 12 months they grow an inch
- birth weight usually doubles by 4 months and
triples by end of first year - head-sparingbiological protection of the brain
when malnutrition temporarily affects body growth
4Sleep
- Newborns sleep about 17 hours per day
- needed for rapid growth
- REM sleeprapid eye movement sleepdeclines
- quiet sleep increases at about 3 months
- too immature to sleep through the night
- Infants sleep patterns influenced by brain waves
and parents caregiving practices
5(No Transcript)
6Early Brain Development
- Most critical biosocial aspect of growth
- newborns skull disproportionately large
- at birth, 25 of adult brain weight
- by age 2, 75 of adult brain weight
7Growth in the First Two Years
8Connections in the Brain
- Head measurement increases 35 in first year
- brain development changes in the brains
communication system
9Basic Brain Structures
- Neuronslong thin nerve cells that make up
nervous system - created before birth
- 70 in cortex (brains outer layer)
- Axonsnerve fibers that extend from neurons that
send impulses - Dendritesnerve fibers extending from neurons
that receive impulses
10Action Potentialhttp//faculty.washington.edu/chu
dler/ap.html
11Action Potential
12Areas of the Cortex
13Basic Brain Structures, cont.
- Neuronslong thin nerve cells that make up
nervous system - created before birth
- 70 in cortex (brains outer layer)
- Axonsnerve fibers that extend from neurons that
send impulses - Dendritesnerve fibers extending from neurons
that receive impulses
14Basic Brain Structures, cont.
- Each neuron has a single axon (nerve fiber) that
extends from it and meets the dendrites of other
neurons at intersections called synapses - axons and dendrites dont actually touch at
synapses - electrical impulses trigger brain chemicals
called neurotransmitters, which carry information
from axon of sending neuron across synaptic gap
to dendrites of receiving neuron - synapses are critical communication links with
the brain
15Connections in the Brain
16Exuberance
- At birth more than 100 million neurons are
present - Phenomenal growth is referred to as transient
exuberancefivefold increase in dendrites in
first 2 years - As many as 15,000 connections may be made per
neuron
17(No Transcript)
18Experience Enhances the Brain
- Specifics of brain structure and growth depend
partly on experience - exuberance is transienttransitional stage
between newborn brains immaturity and the
maturity of older childs or adults brain - underused neurons are inactivated, or pruned
19Experience Enhances the Brain, cont.
- Reactions to Stress
- experiencing stress may cause overproduction of
stress hormone - developing brain can lose capacity to react
normally to stress - normal neuron connections may have been pruned
for rapid response to repeated stress
20Experience Enhances the Brain, cont.
- William Greenough identified 2 experience-related
parts of brain growth - experience-expectant brain functions
- require basic common experiences to develop
normally - experience-dependent brain functions
- depend on particular and variable experiences to
develop
21Experience Enhances the Brain, cont.
- Human brains are designed for expected
experiences - how the brain is structured and connected will
depend on those experiences - the brain expects certain experiences at certain
ages - these experiences critical if connections are to
form if connections not formed, plasticity may
allow new connections and pathways as experiences
continue
22The Senses and Motor Skills
- Sensorimotor Stage
- cognition develops between senses and motor skills
23Sensation and Perception
- All senses function at birth
- sensationthe response of sensory system when it
detects stimulus - begins with outer organnose, eyes, etc.
- perceptionmental procession of sensory
information when brain interprets sensation - begins in the brain and requires experience
- cognitionthinking about what was perceived
24Listening
- Begins prenatally and is acute at birth
- Certain sounds trigger newborns reflexes
- Newborns particularly attentive to human voice
- Newborns sensitive hearing combines with brain
to distinguish sounds
25Looking
- Vision the least mature sense at birth
- Visual experience combined with visual cortex
maturation improves vision - with time scanning becomes more organized,
efficient, and centered - Binocular visionability to focus two eyes in a
coordinated manner to see single image
26Tasting, Smelling, and Touching
- tastefunctions at birth calmed by sugar,
sensitive to sour - touchcomforted by human touch feel pain
- smellcan distinguish between odors and have
preferences - Early sensation is organized for
- social interaction
- comfort
27Motor Skills
- Most visible and dramatic body change of infancy
28Reflexes
- Reflexes for survival are categorized
- maintain oxygen supply (breathing)
- maintain body temperature (crying, kicking)
- manage feeding (rooting and sucking)
- swallowing aids feeding
- spitting up if too much has been swallowed
- crying when stomach empty
29Gross Motor Skills
- Involve large muscles and body movements
- crawling, creeping, walking
30Fine Motor Skills
- Small, finely tuned movements, especially of
hands and fingers, including - successful grabbing
- fingering, pointing, and holding
- grasping a moving object
- transferring objects from hand to hand
- adjusting reach
31Age Norms (in Months) for Gross Motor Skills
32Variations and Ethnic Differences
- Age at which motor skills acquired varies greatly
because of - ethnicity
- inherited factorsgenetic differences
- patterns of infant care
- individual rate of physical maturation
33Public Health Measures
- Newborn Care
- Immunizations
- Nutrition
34Immunization
- Immunizationprocess that stimulates bodys
immune system to defend against attack by a
particular contagious disease - smallpox
- polio
- measles
35Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
- Risk factors?
- laying baby on stomach to sleep
- secondhand smoke
- low birthweight
- formula feeding rather than breast feeding
36Ethnicity and SIDS
- Asian babies less likely to succumb
- Babies of African descent more likely
- Infantcare routines in different cultures play a
role
37Nutrition
38Breast Is Best
- Breast Milk
- begins with colostrum, high-calorie nourishment
before milk lets down - easily digestible
- has antibodies and antibacterial properties
- better for babys health
- Bottle Feeding babies more likely to have
allergies - better option if mother is HIV-positive or using
drugs - Feeding on Demand
39Malnutrition
- Severe Malnutrition
- brain does not have enough nutrition to develop
normally - no body reserves to protect from disease
- marasmus and kwashiorkor diseases are direct
result of malnutrition
40(No Transcript)
41Chapter Six
- The First Two Years
- Cognitive Development
42Sensorimotor Intelligence
- Sensoritmotor intelligenceactive intelligence
causing babies to think while using senses and
motor skills
43Stages 1 and 2 Primary Circular Reactions
- The feedback loop involving the infants own body
infant senses motion and tries to make sense of
it - Stage 1 Reflexes
- Stage 2 First Acquired Adaptations
- adaptations of reflexes, i.e., suckingnew
information taken in by senses and responded to
44Stages 1 and 2 Primary Circular Reactions, cont.
- Assimilation and Accommodation
- assimilationtaking in new information by
incorporating it into previous knowledge - accommodation intake of new data to re-adjust,
refine, expand prior schema or actions - babies eagerly adapt their reflexes and senses
to whatever experiences they have
45Stages 1 and 2 Primary Circular Reactions, cont.
- Sucking as a Stage-Two Adaptation
- begin adapting at about one month
- reflexive assimilation
46Stages 3 and 4 Secondary Circular Reactions
- feedback loop involving people and objects
- Stage 3 Making Interesting Events Last
- repetition
- awareness
- Stage 4 New Adaptation and Anticipation
- goal-directed behavior
- object permanence
47Stages 5 and 6 Tertiary Circular Reactions
- Feedback loop that involves active
experimentation and exploration - involves creativity, action, and ideas
- Stage 5 New Means Through Active
Experimentation - little scientist
48Stages 5 and 6 Tertiary Circular Reactions, cont.
- Stage 6 New Means Through Mental Combinations
- mental combinationssequence of mental actions
tried out before actual performance - deferred imitationperception of something
someone else does (modeling), then performing
action at a later time
49Piaget and Modern Research
- Habituationprocess of getting used to an object
or event through repeated exposure to it - fMRIfunctional magnetic resonance imaging
measuring technique for brain activity and
neurological responses - First three years are prime time for cognitive
development
50Information Processing
- Information-processing theory perspective that
compares human thinking processes to computer
analysis of data, including sensory input, stored
memories, and output
51Affordances
- Affordancesopportunities for perception and
interaction offered by environment - How something is perceived and acted upon depends
on - past experiences
- current developmental level
- sensory awareness of opportunities
- immediate needs and motivation
52Sudden Drops
- Visual cliff measures depth perception, which is
based not on maturity level but affordance - depends on prior experience
- Object Constancy
- things remain what they are, despite changes in
perception or appearance - boundaries of three-dimensional objects
53Movement and People
- Dynamic perception1 of the 2 principles
explaining infant perception namely, that from
birth perception is primed to focus on movement
and change - 2nd principle explaining infant perception is
that babies are fascinated by people - Infants most interested in emotional affordances
of their caregivers
54Memory
- Certain amount of experience and maturation in
order to process and remember experiences - In first year infants have great difficulty
storing new memories - Older children often unable to describe events
that occurred when they were younger
55Memory, cont.
- Very early memories possible if
- situation similar to real life
- motivation high
- special measures aid retrieval by acting as
reminders
56Reminders and Repetition
- Reminder sessionany perceptual experience that
helps a person recall an idea or experience
57A Little Older, A Little More Memory
- After 6 months infants capable of retaining
information for longer periods of time with less
reminding - Deferred imitation apparent after end of first
year - By middle of the 2nd year, children capable of
remembering and reenacting complex sequences
58A Little Older, A Little More Memory, cont.
- Memory is not just single entity distinct brain
regions for particular aspects of memory humans
have a memory for - words
- images
- actions
- smells
- experiences
- memorized facts
59Language What Develops in Two Years?
- Most impressive intellectual achievement of young
child and also of all humans
60The Universal Sequence of Language Development
- Children around the world have the same sequence
of early language development but - timing and depth of linguistic ability vary
61First Noises and Gestures
- Baby talkhigh-pitched, simplified, and
repetitive ways adults talk to babies - Vocalization
- crying
- cooing
- Babbling
- deaf babies do it later and less frequently, but
are more advanced in use of gestures
62First Words
- First word and sentences at age of 1 year
63The Language Explosion and Early Grammar
- Naming explosionsudden increase in infant
vocabulary, especially nouns, beginning at 18
months - Holophrasesingle word that expresses a complete,
meaningful thought - Grammarall the methods that languages use to
communicate meaning
64Theories of Language Learning
- Even the very young use language well
- Three schools of thought
- infants are taught language
- infants teach themselves
- social impulses foster infant language
65Theory 1 Infants are Taught
- Skinners reinforcement theory quantity and
quality of talking to child affects rate of
language development (learned) - parents are good instructors
- baby talk characterized by
- high pitch
- simpler vocabulary
- shorter sentence length
- more questions and commands
- repetition
66Theory 2 Infants Teach Themselves
- Chomsky and LAD (Language Acquisition
Device)hypothesized neurological (inborn)
structure that prewires all children for
language, including basic aspects of intonation,
grammar, and vocabulary - infants innately ready to use their minds to
understand and speak whatever language offered to
them - they are experience expectant
67Theory Three Social Impulses Foster Language
- Social-pragmaticsocial reason for language to
communicate - Infants seek to respond, which shows their being
social in nature and thus mutually dependentby - vocalizing
- babbling
- gesturing
- listening
- pointing
68A Hybrid Theory
- Emergentist coalitioncombination of valid
aspects of several theories - cortex contains many language centers
- nature provides several paths to learning
language
69Chapter Seven
- The First Two Years
- Psychosocial Development
70Theories About Early Psychosocial Development
- Importance of parents and their contribution to
emotional growth
71Psychoanalytic Theory
- Connects biosocial and psychosocial development
72Freud Oral and Anal Stages
- Oral Stage1st stage, where infant obtains
pleasure through sucking and biting - Anal Stage2nd stage, where anus becomes main
source of gratification, i.e., bowel movements
and the control of them
73Erikson Trust and Autonomy
- 1st StageTrust vs. Mistrust
- basic needs need to be met with consistency,
continuity, and sameness - 2nd StageAutonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- basic desire to gain self-rule over their own
actions and bodies and to feel ashamed if it
doesnt happen
74Behaviorism
- Infants emotions and personality are molded as
parents reinforce or punish childs spontaneous
behavior - social learning adds to personality formation
- social referencing strengthens learning by
observation
75Cognitive Theory
- Individuals thoughts and values determine
perspective on the world - Working modelset of assumptions used to organize
perceptions and experiences
76Epigenetic Theory
- Each child is born with a genetic predisposition
to develop certain traits that affect emotional
development - Temperamentconstitutionally based individual
differences in emotion, motor, and attentional
reactivity and self-regulation. - inhibited
- uninhibited
- epigeneticthough personality traits not learned,
environment affects their expression
77Research on Temperament Nine Characteristics
- activity level
- rhythmicity
- approach-withdrawal
- adaptability
- intensity of reaction
- threshold of responsiveness
- quality of mood
- distractibility
- attention span
78Temperament and Caregiving
- Inhibited vs. Uninhibited
- responsive care and encouragement can help
inhibited children become less so - Match between parent and child
- goodness of fit
79(No Transcript)
80Sociocultural Theory
- Emphasizes the many ways social context can have
impact on infant-caregiver relationship - If social context changes, child can change
81Emotional Development in Infancy
- In the first 2 years of emotional development,
infants progress from simple reactions to complex
patterns of social awareness
82The First Year
- Newborns first discernable emotions
- distress
- contentment
- Later emotions (after first weeks)
- anger
- fear, expressed clearly by stranger wariness and
separation anxiety
83The Second Year
- Fear and anger typically decrease
- Laughing, crying more discriminating
- New emotions appear
- pride
- shame
- embarrassment
- guilt
84(No Transcript)
85Self-Awareness
- Foundation for emotional growth
- realization of individual distinctions
- At about 5 months begin developing a sense of
self apart from mother - 15-18 months the Me-self
- rouge experiment
86Pride and Shame
- Self-awareness becomes linked with self-concept
early on - Negative comments more likely to lead to less
pride or shame - Own pride can be more compelling than parental
approval
87The Development of Social Bonds
- Social connections help us understand human
emotions
88Synchrony
- Synchronycoordinated interaction attunement
- Helps infants learn to express own feelings
- Imitation is pivotal
- Becomes more elaborate and more frequent with
time - Learning through play
- playful interactions by both partners
- important for both to be responsive
89Attachment
- Enduring emotional connection
- Proximity-seeking behaviors
- Contact-maintaining behaviors
90Secure and Insecure Attachment
- Bowlby and Ainsworth
- Securerelationship of trust and confidence that
provides comfort, assurance, and secure base
91Secure and Insecure Attachment, cont.
- Insecurerelationship that is unpredictable or
unstable - avoidant one person tries to avoid any
connection with another - resistant/ambivalent anxiety and uncertainly
keep one person clinging to another
92 93Measuring Attachment
- Strange Situationlab procedure to measure
attachment observed are - exploration of the toys (caregiver present)
- reaction to caregivers departure
- reaction to caregivers return
- disorganized behaviorneither secure nor insecure
attachmentmarked by inconsistent behavior of
caregiver and infant toward each other
94Insecure Attachment as a Warning Sign
- Stressed mother (although not always an
indicator) - Mother too withdrawn
- Inconsistent behavior of mother (conflicting
messages sent by her) - Insecure attachments repairable
95Social Referencing
- Looking to others for cues
96Referencing Mom
- Look to mother for comfort
- Mothers tone and expression can become guide to
how to react to unfamiliar or ambiguous event
97Referencing Dad
- Fathers play more than mothers
- Infants look to fathers for fun and physical play
- Physically active play with fathers may
contribute to development of social skills and
emotional expression - Physically active play with fathers helps
children master motor skills and develop muscle
control
98Cultural Differences
- Fathers, single mothers, grandparents, and
cultures with other family structures still
provide needed referencing - Fathers involvement
- can benefit later development of child
- raise mothers self-confidence
- and two parents working together are better able
to meet infants needs than either alone
99Infant Day Care
- Almost all infants cared for by people other than
parents part of the time - Specifics vary from culture to culture
- The older the child and the more money the family
has, the more likely possibility of day care
100Infant Day-Care
- Family day care
- Center care
- Day care generally beneficial
- High-quality programs include
- adequate attention to each infant
- encouragement of sensorimotor exploration and
language development - attention to health and safety
- well-trained professional caregivers
101(No Transcript)
102Infant Day Care, cont.
- Cognitive and biosocial development are more
advanced by day care than at home - Poor day care has detrimental effects
103Conclusions in Theory and Practice
- No single theory stands out as best
interpretation of developments during first 2
years - Do not know the extent to which positive
influence can compensate for negative one
104Conclusions in Theory and Practice, cont.
- Parental attentiveness crucial to synchrony,
attachment, and social referencing. - In dealing with children with problems, need a
practical rather than theoretical approach that
focuses on their specific issues