The Theories of PSYCHOLOGY

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The Theories of PSYCHOLOGY
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Psychoanalytic theory of development

• Freuds theory that development, which proceeds
  in discrete stages, is determined largely by
  biologically based drives shaped by encounters
  with the environment and through the interaction
  of three components of personality- the id, ego,
  and superego.

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Sigmund Freud

• He said that the mind was controlled by three
  parts the id, ego, and superego.
• Id- Operates the pleasure principle.
• Ego- The rational controlling part of the
  personality.
• Superego- internalizes parental or societal
  values, morals, and roles.

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Id
Ego
Super Ego
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Oedipus/Electra Complex

• Oedipus Complex- A period of time in which a boy
  is sexually attracted to his mother.
• Electra Complex- A period of time in which a girl
  is sexually attracted to her father.

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Freuds Developmental stages
Age Stage of Development
0-1 Oral- Focus on eating and taking things into the mouth.
1-3 Anal. Emphasis on toilet training first experience with discipline and authority.
3-6 Phallic. Increase in sexual urges leads to Oedipus complex in males.
6-12 Latency. Sexual urges repressed emphasis on education and the beginnings of concern for others.
12-20 Genital. Altruistic love joins selfish love need for reproduction of species underlies adoption of adult responsibilities.
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Defence Mechanisms

• In psychoanalytic theory, the egos protective
  methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously
  distorting reality.
• Rationalization- An excuse we come up with in
  order to explain failure, loss, error, or bad
  behaviour. Ex. I didnt get the job I wanted
  because the person who got hired is related to
  the manager.
• Displacement- Taking our anger/frustration out on
  someone else because of an earlier situation. Ex.
  A friend makes fun of you in front of someone you
  are trying to impress, you later take your
  frustration out on your parents.

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Defence mechanisms cont.

• Repression- Pushing unpleasant thoughts/urges
  into our subconscious minds. Is a problem as can
  resurface as sarcasm, physical problem, etc. Ex.
  Man finds mothers traits annoying however puts
  them into his subconscious mind, where he is
  later sarcastic to is wife who carries the same
  traits.
• Projection- Seeing negative traits in other
  people that we carry but can not admit to. Ex.
  Someone who drives you crazy may have personality
  traits you have been trying to hide.

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Dominated by his Id at the beginning but starts
to attain his ego side later on.
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Dominated by Superego
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Start with a ego however let the superego take
over them.
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Dominated by Superego
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ALFRED ADLER

• Although Adler one of Freuds colleagues agreed
  with many of his perspectives he also developed
  his own theories.
• He felt that peoples lives are governed by the
  need to overcome inferiority in the conscious
  mind, which was unlike Freuds belief of the
  importance of unconscious motives.

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Carl Jung

• Jung divides the psyche into 3 parts
• Ego the conscious mind
• Personal Unconscious includes anything which is
  not presently conscious, but can be.
• Differs from Freuds theory because it doesnt
  include instincts.
• Example Both memories that are easily brought to
  mind and those that have been suppressed.

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Carl Jung

• Collective Unconscious the reservoir of our
  experiences as species or a kind of knowledge
  that we are all born with.
• Unconscious mind contains both personal
  experiences and common cultural experiences which
  are called the collective unconscious.
• Although we all possess a collective
  consciousness, we can never be directly conscious
  of it.
• It influences our experiences and behaviours
  especially ones related to emotion.

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Carl Jung

• Example of Experiences that show the effects of
  the collective unconscious
• Déjà vu (the feeling that you have been there
  before)
• Love at first sight
• The immediate recognition of certain symbols
• Near death experience
• These examples could be understood as a sudden
  conjunction of our outer reality and the inner
  reality of the collective consciousness.

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Psychosocial

• A theory of development that says that children
  develop through a series of stages largely
  through accomplishing tasks that involve them in
  interaction with their social environment.

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Erickson

• Erickson believed that the development of self
  does not end with the child or adolescent stage.
• He explained that there are many stages of life
  he referred to as the psychological stages.
• Each stage has different tasks or challenges that
  are key to forming social relationships.
• Failure to meet the requirements of one stage can
  prevent an individual from succeeding in the next
  stage.

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Age Period( Years) Stage of Development
0-1 Infancy Task To develop basic trust in oneself and others. Risk Mistrust of others and lack of self-confidence.
1-3 Early Childhood Task To learn self-control and establish autonomy. Risk Shame and doubt about ones own capabilities.
3-6 Play Age Task To develop initiative in mastering environment. Risk Feelings of guilt over aggressiveness and daring.
6-12 School Age Task To develop industry. Risk Feelings of inferiority over real or imagined failure to master tasks.
12-20 Adolescence Task To achieve sense of identity. Risk Role confusion over who and what the individual wants to be.
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Age Period (Years) Stage of Development
20-30 Young Adulthood Task To achieve intimacy with others. Risk Shaky identity may lead to avoidance of others and isolation.
30-65 Adulthood Task To express oneself through generatively . Risk Inability to create children, ideas, or products may lead to stagnation.
65 Mature Age Task To achieve sense of integrity. Risk Doubts and unfulfilled desires may lead to despair.
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Cognitive social learning theory

• Cognitive learning theory says that children
  learn not only through conditioning by through
  imitating others as well.
• Sesame Street

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Piaget Theory

• Two complementary cognitive processes play a role
  in the development of the child.
• First, children use what they have already
  learned in the world, as the framework for the
  absorption of new experiences.
• Secondly, children modify the framework in order
  to accommodate the new knowledge gained from
  their environments.

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Psychoanalysis

• A process whereby patients discuss their
  background, feelings and experiences with a
  trained therapist.

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KAREN HORNEY

• She felt that conflicts develop as a result of
  feeling
• unsafe, unloved, or undervalued.
• She felt that those who experienced love and
  worth as
• a child would develop positive aspects of
  personality, whereas those who do not will
  develop defence mechanisms to protect themselves.
  
• She disagreed with Freuds view that women are
  inferior to men. She proposed that men are in
  fact
• inferior to women as they can have babies.

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Functionalism

• The belief that mental characteristics develop to
  allow people to survive and adapt.

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William James

• Was impressed with how people adapted their
  behaviour to the needs of their surroundings.
• He also believed that mental characteristics
  developed
• and adapted enabling individuals to survive and
  solve problems.
• Through his studies he was able to examine
  society and how the development of children,
  education, and society could be improved.
• He also made observations on the behavioural
  differences of men and women.

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Behaviourism

• A theory that explains that theories of behaviour
  must be based on observations of actual
  behaviour, rather than speculation about motives
  or unobservable behaviour.

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What do you associate with?

• Food?
• Exams?
• Home?

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Pavlov Conditioning

• When studying dogs digestion he stumbled upon the
  phenomenon of psychic reflexes.
• He noticed that the dogs not only salivated when
  they could visually see the meat, but also before
  the meat was in their vision.
• He decided to further test this discovery with a
  bell experiment, he wanted to see whether the
  dogs would associate a bell with food, and in
  turn salivate before the food was even in their
  vision.
• The experiment went as Pavlov expected and the
  dogs did begin to salivate at the sound of the
  bell.
• This theory made people realize the importance of
  cognitive processes (thoughts, perceptions,
  expectations) on an organisms capacity for
  learning.

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Skinner Watson

• Wondered if Pavlovs principles of stimulus and
  response could explain more complex behaviour.
• He noted that most behaviour takes place
  voluntarily before being triggered by outside
  events. Ex. Waving your hand to call a cab and
  it stops.
• Skinner put a rat in a cage with a bar that when
  pushed dispersed a food pellet. When the rat
  realized that this was how they could attain
  their food they began to press the bar whenever
  they needed a food pellet. This is called
  operant conditioning.
• Operant conditioning affects our life in many
  ways as we now realize that positive
  reinforcement is crucial in achieving desired
  behaviour.

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STRUCTURALISM

• The observation of the inner workings of the mind
  by conducting experiments on sensation,
  perception, and attention.

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William Wundt

• Studied psychology with inquires into language,
  art, social customs, laws, and morals.
• He is said to have developed the basis of
  psychology, however his theories are rarely used
  today.

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Zimbardo Experiment

• Philip Zimbardo studied how roles affect
  behaviour, by setting up a mock prison.
• In the prison volunteers played the roles of the
  prisoners and the guards.
• As the days progressed in the prison the
  individuals began to believe that they were
  actually prisoners or guards and started to take
  their roles seriously.
• After 6 days they had to cut the study short as
  this study was beginning to hurt the boys both
  mentally and physically.
• This shows how people conform to the roles given
  to them by individuals or society.

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Harlow

• Psychologists Mary and Harry Harlow originally
  isolated monkeys in order to produce disease free
  specimens.
• While the monkeys were confined, they were
  beginning to show side effects such as staring
  into space, rocking back and forth, going into
  rages when people approached. Some of the mother
  monkeys would even attack their young or ignore
  them completely.
• They decided to test these side effects further
  by raising the moneys with a surrogate mother who
  was either wire or cloth.
• They realized the monkeys spent most of their
  time with the cuddling with the soft monkey and
  just being near the wire monkey long enough to
  feed.
• Later they brought in loud noises and mechanical
  monsters into the monkey cages. The monkeys
  raised by the cloth mother would run to her to
  gain courage and then investigate the problem,
  whereas the monkeys raised by the wire monkey
  cringed with fear in the corner.

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• Harlows experiments are important as they show
  the importance of expressing emotions. They also
  show how human babies need to be raised in a warm
  and loving environment in order to gain emotional
  stability.

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STANLEY MILGRAM

• The goal of his experiments were to test the
  power of conformity.
• In his experiment, a researcher dressed in a
  white lab coat, instructed a subject to teach
  pairs of words to a learner who was seated out
  of sight of the teacher.
• Whenever the learner made a mistake he was to
  receive an electric shock, the severity of the
  shocks were to increase with every mistake.
• The interesting part was that the learner was not
  actually receiving the shocks, but the teacher
  did not know that. The learner acted as though
  he was receiving the up to 450 volts of
  electricity.

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• Milligram found that most of the teachers would
  administer shocks right up to the most severe
  level.
• This experiment shows how ordinary people, under
  certain circumstances can be known to cause harm
  to others.
• Comparisons have been made to the Nazi soldiers
  of the Holocaust.