RESEARCH METHODS Psychology Chapter 2

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RESEARCH METHODSPsychology Chapter 2
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Goals of Psychology

• Describe
• Explain
• Predict
• Control
• behavior and mental processes

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Critical Thinking

• Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments
  or conclusions but questions their validity
• The opposite is NOT THINKING (willingly
  accepting the most simple explanation).

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Why is Research Important?
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Research and Research Methodology

1. Method of asking questions then drawing logical
   supported conclusions based on facts
2. Researchers need to be able to determine if their
   conclusions are reasonable or not (critical
   thinking).

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Scientific Method

1. Technique using tools such as observation,
   experimentation, and statistical analysis to
   learn about the world
2. Through its use, psychology is thereby considered
   a science.

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Steps to the Scientific Method

• Form a research question
• Develop a hypothesis
• Test hypothesis
• Analyze data / results
• Draw a conclusion
• Report results
• Publication
• Replication

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Theory

• Tentative explanation for observed findings
• Uses results from individual studies
• Tool for explaining observed behavior
• Theories can change as new scientific evidence is
  found.
• Analogy Prosecuting Attorney presents their
  theory backed up by evidence to the jury.

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Common Sense

1. Conclusions based solely on personal experience
   and sensible logic
2. Most of the time it is good butcan lead to
   incorrect conclusions

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Did You Know

• It is nearly impossible to fold a regular sheet
  of paper in half more than 8 times.
• Go ahead and try!

• Mythbusters pulled it off with a piece of paper
  as big as an airplane hanger and a steam roller.

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Science vs. Common Sense

• Science helps build explanations that are
  consistent and predictive as opposed to
  conflicting and describing the past (hindsight)
• Science is based on
• knowledge of facts
• developing theories
• testing hypotheses
• public and repeatable procedures

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Hindsight Bias

• The tendency to exaggerate ones ability to have
  foreseen how something would turn out after
  learning the outcome.
• The I knew it all along phenomenon.
• Week before the 1985 Super Bowl, 81 of students
  in a Stanford Psychology class predicted the
  Miami Dolphins would win. 40 said the Dolphins
  would win by 10 or more points.
• A week after San Francisco 49ers decisive
  victory, he asked the group who picked the 49ers.
• 58 said they picked the 49ers
• NO ONE remembered saying the Dolphins would win
  by at least 10 points.

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Overconfidence

• Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our
  current knowledge
• We are more confident than we are correct.
• 3. Overconfidence in ourselves can lead us to say
  dumb things
• Man will never reach the moon, regardless of all
  future scientific advances. - Lee DeForest,
  inventor of vacuum tube, 1957

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REVIEW QUESTIONWhat is the difference between
Common Sense and Science?

• ANSWER
• Common sense relies on the past and may be wrong.
• Science uses facts to provide consistent
  predictions
• DO YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE?

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BiasA Researchers Worst EnemyWHY????
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Bias

• Situation in which a factor unfairly increases
  the likelihood of a researcher reaching a
  particular conclusion
• Bias should be minimized as much as possible in
  research

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Confirmation Bias

• Our tendency to search for information that
  confirms our beliefs and ignore those that dont.

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Researcher Bias

• The tendency to notice evidence which supports
  one particular point of view or hypothesis

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Volunteer Bias

• People who volunteer to participate in a survey
  differ from those who do not.
• Those who complete it are often willing to share,
  have similar interests, have spare time (magazine
  surveys).
• These factors skew or slant the results.
• Eliminate this by using a random sample where
  everyone has equal chance of being chosen to
  participate.

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Participant Bias

• Tendency of research subjects to respond in
  certain ways because they know they are being
  observed
• Do you act the same in the classroom as you do at
  home?
• The subjects might try to behave in ways they
  believe the researcher wants them to behave
• Can be reduced by naturalistic observation

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Research Strategies

• Surveys
• Observations
• Experiments

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Research Strategies Fall Into 2 Categories

• Descriptivestrategies for observing and
  describing behavior
• Observation
• Surveys
• Experimentalstrategies for inferring cause and
  effect relationships among variables

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Example from August 9Question Can we make any
determinations about these scores?

• 2nd Period survey on what you know about
  psychology
• Average 45.78
• Low 28
• High 59

• 4th Period survey on what you know about
  psychology
• Average 46.50
• Low 21
• High57

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Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Studies
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Developmental Psychologists

• Psychologists who study how individuals change
  throughout their lifetime
• These psychologists use longitudinal
  cross-sectional studies

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Longitudinal Study

• Researchers study the same group of individuals
  for many years to see how they change.
• Can be very expensive and difficult to conduct
• Risky people may drop out

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Cross-Sectional Study

• Researchers simultaneously study a number of
  subjects from different age groups and then
  compare the results to see how they are
  different.
• Cheaper, easier than longitudinal studies, but
  group differences may be due to factors other
  than development. (More variables.)

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Longitudinal/Cross Sectional Study
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Naturalistic Observation

• Method of observation where subjects are observed
  in their natural environment
• Subjects are not aware they are being watched
  researcher does not interfere
• Could use hidden cameras or two way mirrors
• Ex People eating in a restaurant

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Laboratory Observation

• Not always a sterile room.
• Place where the environment can be controlled to
  minimize the number of variables.
• Negatives are that it may cause the subject to
  act differently than it normally would.
• Ex Skinner Box, maze, fish tank

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Case Study

• In depth study of one individual with the hopes
  of determining universal principles
• Generally used to investigate rare, unusual, or
  extreme conditions
• Example Phineas Gage
• Negatives
• This technique is very open to bias
• Difficulty of applying data from one person to
  everyone

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Survey Method

• Research method that relies on self-reports uses
  surveys, questionnaires, interviews.
• Usually a very efficient and inexpensive method
• Can you guess some limitations of this method of
  research?

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Survey Limitations

• Accuracy is a concern people are not always
  honest.
• They fear confidentiality or want to please the
  researcher.
• Example Tooth brushing survey in 1960s. If as
  many people actually brushed their teeth as often
  as they claimed to brush their teeth, 33 (?)
  more toothpaste would have been sold that year.

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Sampling Terms

• (Target) Populationlarge (potentially infinite)
  group represented by the sample. Findings are
  generalized to this group.
• Sampleselected segment of the population for the
  study
• Stratified or Representative sampleclosely
  parallels the target population on relevant
  characteristics sample is proportional to TARGET
  POPULATION
• Random selectionevery member of larger group has
  equal chance of being selected for the study
  sample

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Random Sample

• A sample that represents the target population
• Each member of the population has an equal chance
  of being included.
• If a sample is not random it is said to be
  biased.
• Increase chances of representing population when
  sample is BIG ENOUGH
• How would you pick a random sample???

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Generalizing the Results

• Applying the findings from the research group to
  other groups.
• Be cautious about generalizing when it isnt a
  random or stratified sample.
• Example Car preference differs between men,
  women, region, socio-economic background, and
  more.

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Correlational Study

• Examine the relationship of how closely one thing
  is related to another
• Collects a set of facts organized into two or
  more categories
• measure parents disciplinary style
• measure childrens behavior
• Correlation reveals relationships among facts
• e.g., more democratic parents have children who
  behave better
• Correlational studies are helpful in making
  predictions.

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Correlational Study

• Does NOT determine a cause and effect
  relationship between the variables
• Correlation CANNOT prove causation
• Do democratic parents produce better behaved
  children?
• Do better behaved children encourage parents to
  be democratic?
• May be an unmeasured common factor
• e.g., good neighborhoods produce democratic
  adults and well-behaved children
• Does NOT determine why the two variables are
  related--just that they are related.

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Zero Correlation

• There is no relationship at all between the two
  variables.

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How to Read a Correlation
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Correlation Causation

• There is a strong .90 correlation in shoe size
  and IQ.
• Does this mean that a large shoe size is the
  cause for higher intelligence?
• What else could explain this?

• YOUR FEET GROW
• AS YOU GET OLDER
• WISER

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Lets Review
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Experimental Method

• The Only Way to Show
• Cause Effect

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Experimental Terms

1. Variable part of experiment that changes
2. Independent Variable (IV) controlled by
   researcher. This variable causes something to
   happen.
3. Dependent Variable (DV) watched by the
   researcher to see the impact of the IV. This
   variable is the effect that is caused by the IV.

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Groups

• Experimental group receives the treatment
  frequently a drug
• Control group receives no treatment usually
  receives a placebo (fake drug)
• Placebo Effect participants react because
  they THINK they are receiving treatment (sugar
  pill)
• Mind over Matter
• Nocebo If told a drug wont work, the person
  will feel it doesnt work even if it is a
  legitimate drug.

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Eliminating Bias

• Single Blind Study Participants do not know if
  they are receiving the treatment of the placebo
• Double Blind Study Neither the participants nor
  the researchers know if they are administering
  the treatment or the placebo.

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Limitations of Experiments

• Conditions in an experiment may not reflect
  conditions of real life.
• (Must simplify variables to get useful
  information.)
• Ethical considerations in creating some more
  real life situations

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Research Ethics

• Confidentiality participants are more likely to
  be truthful if they know their privacy is
  protected. Confidentiality can be broken if
  information reveals harm to another person

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Ethics

• Informed consent some studies may have long
  term threats or irreversible effects.
• Participants must be given a choice to
  participate after being informed of the study.
• Deception is allowable when benefit outweighs
  harm and participants receive full explanation at
  its conclusion

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Animal Research

• APA has rules for animals, too.
• Often used instead of humans when topic could not
  be ethically studied on a human.
• Ex Early separation studied by Harlow in 1959
  with monkeys.
• Animal experiments lead to solutions with humans
  eating disorders, drug treatments
• Still controversial due to the fact that animals
  can be harmed in studies.