VII. Cook

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VII. Cooks Expeditions
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A) The voyages of Captain James Cook receive
credit as the first sea expeditions devoted to
methodical,scientific oceanography.
1) His reports changed the western view of the
world.
2) He discovered Australia, New Zealand, many
islands in the South Pacific, the Hawaiian
Islands, the West Coast of the US and Canada,
the Bering Strait and the Antarctic Circle.
3) A major contribution to Cooks voyages was
the invention of the chronometer.

1. In 1735, John Harrison invented a clock that
   runs accurately at sea. This made it possible
   to determine longitude accurately.

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VIII. The United States Exploring Expedition
A) Under command of Lt. Charles Wilkes, it was
one of the first significant scientific
expeditions launched by the US.
B) The objective was to explore the southern
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, to collect
specimens, and to map, illustrate and provide
text to document their discoveries.
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C) The most outstanding achievement of the US
Exploring Expedition was proving the existence
of Antarctica.
D) The Father of Physical Oceanography Matthew
Maury
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1) Between 1842-1855, Matthew Maury published
many detailed works on sea navigation. He
earned global acclaim for his work and his data
was adopted worldwide.
a) In 1855, he published The Physical Geography
of the Sea, which is now considered the first
textbook on modern oceanography and he is
remembered today as the father of physical
oceanography.
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IX. Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle
A) The Beagle began its five-year voyage with
Charles Darwin as the ships naturalist in
1831. The H.M.S. Beagle ultimately circled the
Earth.
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1) Darwin noted that coral grows in relatively
shallow, warm, upper depths.
a) But, coral reefs extend deeper than coral
grows. Darwin observed the massive reefs must
form when the sea floor slowly sinks and coral
grows upward from its base to remain in shallow
water.
2) Darwin is renowned for his theories on
natural selection and the evolution of species.
a) In 1859, he published The Origin of Species.
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X. The Challenger Expedition
A) The Challenger expedition (1872-1876), is
known and recognized as the first devoted
entirely to marine science.
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1) The two men responsible for the mission were
Scottish professor Sir Charles Wyville Thomson
and British naturalist Sir John Murray.
2) Among its accomplishments and discoveries,
the expedition
a) Took the first soundings deeper than 4,000
meters (13,123 feet) 8,200 meters (26,900
feet) in the Marianas Trench.
b) Captured biological samples in midwater and
along the bottom with a towed device.
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c) Discovered marine organisms in the deepest
parts of the ocean, contrary to popular belief
at the time.
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d) Sampled and illustrated plankton in various
habitats and depths not previously studied.
e) Cataloged and identified 715 new genera and
4,717 new species.
XI. The Oceanography Explosion
A) The Industrial Revolution spearheaded the
growth and expansion of marine sciences. This
included
1) Better ships made of iron with steam engines.
2) Improvements in the design and building of
research equipment.
3) The advent of the submarine.
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4) Global conflict helping to accelerate
research in science and technology.
B) Three Expeditions
1) The German Meteor Expedition (1925)
a) Crossed the Atlantic 14 times in two years.
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b) Data collected established patterns for
ocean water circulation, nutrient dispersal,
and plankton growth.
c) Primary accomplishment was mapping the
Atlantic seafloor with echo-sounding technology.
2) The United States Atlantis Expedition 1931
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a) The first ship specifically designed and
built for ocean studies.
b) Atlantis added to the work of the Meteor as
well as confirmed the existence of
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and mapped it.
3) The H.M.S. Challenger II Expedition 1951
a) Mission to measure the depths of the
Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans.
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b) Used eco-sounding technology for mapping.
c) Challenger IIs most noted discovery
was finding the deepest known part of the
ocean. At 10,838 meters (35,558 feet)
deep, this is still the deepest known place in
the world.
d) This spot, located in the Marianas Trench,
was named Challenger Deep in honor of the first
Challenger expedition.
RV Flip
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1. Describe LORAN-C and GPS. 2. Which
navigational system would you rather have? 3.
Tell me why your prefer one system to another.
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Glomar Explorer
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XII. Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
A) How the oceans were studied was changed
forever by the submersibles and self-contained
diving.
1) Instead of grabbing samples blindly, a
scientist could pick specific ones.
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2) Scientists could take delicate samples
without damaging them and living organisms
without killing them.
3) Scientists can directly observe the geology,
life, and other phenomena without taking any
samples.
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B) Submersibles
1) Three types of submersibles used for
underwater research
a) Bathysphere - operated only vertically.
( Barton BeBe )
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b) Bathyscaphe - operated much like a blimp air
ship by releasing ballast and had a small
electric motor to give it limited horizontal
mobility.
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c) Deep-diving submersibles - state of the art
today, far less fragile than bathyscaphes,
easier to launch and use in rough seas. This
makes them suitable for more varied types of
research. Some even have robotic arms
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XIII. Self-Contained Diving
A) In 1840, Augustus Siebe introduced the first
practical dive equipment hard-hat diving that
supplied air from the surface through a hose.
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NOAA, US Monitor
427 ft in Lk Michigan
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B) Used mainly for underwater construction,
salvage, and ship maintenance. Limited because
it is heavy and requires a support team and
vessel.
C) In 1878, Englishman Henry Fleuss introduced
the first workable self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus, called scuba today.
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D) In 1943, Jacques Cousteau introduced the first
practical scuba.
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ADVANTAGES vs. DISADVANTAGES Scuba Submersibles
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XIV. ROVs, AUVs, Electronic Navigation, and
Satellites
A) Technology such as electronics and space
travel have provided four important
contributions to oceanography
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1. Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) became
common in the late 1970s.
a) A ROV is a small, unmanned submarine with
propellers, video camera, and an umbilical to
the surface.
b) ROVs are an economical way to match the
capability of a submersible and the dexterity of
a scuba diver.
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2. AUVs)
a) AUVs Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (are
untethered robotic devices propelled through the
water by self-contained power systems.
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b) Piloted by an onboard computer, AUVs are
launched from the surface and are maneuvered in
three dimensions.
c) AUVs sample the ocean along precise
preprogrammed underwater paths.
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3. The first electronic navigation came into use
in the late 1960s.

• LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation), later called
  Loran-C, used land based radio transmitters
  along the coasts.
• However, accuracy varied with distance from
  the transmitters. The farther from a transmitter
  the less accurate is the position.

4. Satellites sea surface observations.
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a) Satellites orbit the Earth and assist
oceanographers with global observations of the
oceans.
b) Satellites assist oceanographers in
understanding the influence and effect of the
oceans on the global climate systems.
c) Information gathered from satellites helps to
validate computer models that numerically
simulate climatic events.
1) Three types of sea surface observations made
by satellites o benefit oceanographers
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a) Provide long-time continuous measurements of
variables such as sea-surface height, shape,
temperature, and color over the entire planet.
b) Can detect algae blooms and river plumbs,
monitor pollution, and assist oceanographers in
understanding the influence and effect of the
oceans on the global climate system.
c) Scientists can look at large areas of ocean
in a very short time.
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5. In the 1990s, GPS (Global Positioning System)
replaced the Loran.
a) GPS is based on signals from orbiting
satellites and works everywhere on Earth, all
the time, in all weather and is more accurate
to within 1-2 meters (3-6 feet).
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6) How GPS works.
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( GPS uses triangulation to accurately determine
a position on Earth. Satellite 1 transmits its
location and time. This process is repeated for
2 and 3. Where the three signals meet at the
GPS is its location expressed in specific
coordinates. Satellite 4s signal is required
to obtain the elevation of the GPS unit. In the
1990s, GPS replaced Loran. GPS is based on
signals from orbiting satellites and works
everywhere on Earth, all the time, in all
weather and is accurate to within 1-2 meters
(3-6 feet). )
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7) Electronic navigation has been very important
for oceanographers
a) Scientists know where they are when they take
samples or conduct research.
b) They can provide this information to other
scientists who need to conduct research in the
same location.
c) Makes navigation significantly more accurate
and easy.