Chapter 28

1
Chapter 28 The Stormy 60s
EU The 1960s begin with promise, but due to
the war in Vietnam, the civil rights movement,
and the counterculture America sees a dramatic
shift in beliefs and values.

• Movements of the 60s
• Sexual revolution
• Civil rights
• Youth counterculture
• Feminism
• Vietnam protests

2

• JFK His Domestic Policies The Kingdom of
  Camelot
• Peace Corps 2 years of voluntary service in
  developing countries (designed to fight
  communism)
• Goals Medicare, for education, mass
  transportation, in min wage, in SS, the
  Space Race (24billion), Civil Rights Bill
• The Space Race
• May 5, 1961 Alan Shepard first Amer. in space
• 1962 John Glenn - first man to orbit moon
• July 20, 1969 Buzz Aldrin Neil Armstrong
  moon landing
• Economic Policies wages, overall tax
• cut. (Increase spending Production)
• Problems Might alienate Congress

3

• JFK Foreign Policy
• June 1961 met with Khrushchev in Vienna
  threatened to cut off Berlin to the West
  Kennedy sent 40,000 troops to Europe.
• August 1961 The Berlin Wall was built (down in
  1989)
• Trade Expansion Act 1962 Kennedy trade
  negotiations, tariffs cut by 50, Globalization
  (1967)

During the existence of the wall there were some
5,000 flights to West Berlin, 192 people were
shot while trying to cross and another 200 were
seriously injured
The first death in the Berlin Wall was that of
Peter Fechter was a young man of 18, a bricklayer
from East Berlin, who agonized for an hour hooked
to the wire of the Berlin Wall after being shot.
4

• JFKs New Defense Strategy
• Eisenhower increased nuclear weapons, decreased
  conventional weapons. Kennedy ended massive
  retaliation and increased defense spending to
  its highest level.
• The Green Berets special forces trained in
  guerilla warfare. JFK thought Vietnam would be a
  good test for his unit.
• 1962 Peace conference to discuss the Communist
  threat in Laos.
• Flexible Response weigh your options with
  each situation and devise a plan especially for
  that situation. Increased reliance on military
  and less on diplomacy.

5

• Our First Glimpse Into Vietnam
• 1954 after a nationalist uprising, France pulled
  out of Vietnam the country would be divided _at_
  the 17th parallel.
• Ho Chi Minh North Vietnam (USSR Backed)
• Ngo Dinh Diem South (US Backed, under
  Eisenhower)
• Opponents to Diem formed the NLF North
  Liberation Front or Vietcong they were
  gathering support from peasants who had been
  harmed by Diems strategic hamlet program.
• 1961 Kennedy orders increase in advisers (15,000
  Troops)
• May 1963 Buddhist monks were setting themselves
  on fire (Televised)
• 1963 US backed a successful coup November 1,
  Diem is assassinated.
• Kennedy believed in Modernization Theory
  follow US behavior and things would improve in
  undeveloped nations.

6
JFK Cuba 1959 Fidel Castro took over Cuba
Eisenhower planned to use Cuban exiles to invade
Cuba and oust Castro. April 17, 1961 the troops
(1400) landed and were captured immediately.
Kennedy takes full responsibility and Castro
forms closer relationship with USSR. CIA asked
for air strikes, Kennedy said NO!
Bay of Pigs Invasion Failure!
7

• JFK Cuba
• October 1962 American spy planes took pictures of
  Soviet missiles in Cuba pointed at US. To
  shield Cuba and get US to back off regarding
  Berlin.
• Cuban Missile Crisis Air Force suggests a
  surgical bombing on missile sites. Kennedy
  ordered a quarantine around Cuba.
• October 22, 1962 Kennedy warns Krushchev that any
  missiles from Cuba would be taken out on USSR.
  Oct 28, USSR backed down and agreed to remove
  missiles. US agreed to end quarantine, to not
  invade Cuba, and to take our missiles out of
  Turkey (unofficial).
• EFFECTS
• Krushchev humiliated ousted
• USSR military build-up
• US military build up
• Democrats won seats in 1962 election
• 1963 Nuclear test ban treaty
• Washington-Moscow Hotline
• Era of Détente

8
The Cuban Missile Crisis
9

• The Assassination of JFK
• November 22, 1963 Dallas. Lee Harvey Oswald,
  shot by Jack Ruby
• Warren Commission investigation into
  assassination

10

• President Lyndon Baines Johnson, TX Senator
• Civil Rights Act of 1964 passed as a memorial
  to JFK
• Banned discrimination in public places
• Strengthened power of Fed govt to end
  segregation in schools
• Title VII barred job discrimination based on
  race, sex, national origin.
• Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
• 1965 Executive Order for affirmative action

11

• The Election of 1964
• Johnson Democrat, claims Goldwater is trigger
  happy
• Sen Barry Goldwater (AZ) Republican very
  conservative. Beginning of grassroots
  conservative movement. Against income tax, SS,
  TVA, Civil Rights, nuclear test ban
• The Daisy Commercial!
• Johnson 61, Goldwater 39 of popular vote

12

• Digging Deeper Into Vietnam
• August 2, 1964 USS Maddox was fired upon by N.
  Vietnamese troops (one shot)
• August 4, 1964 a second attack in Tonkin Gulf
  (never happened)
• Tonkin Gulf Resolution - Congress gave Johnson a
  blank check for wartime powers. Johnson orders
  a limited retaliation air raids on North
  Vietnam.
• March 8, 1965 begin invasion with ground troops
  and bombing of N. Vietnam. By 1968 536,000 US
  troops in Vietnam. Operation Rolling Thunder
  (30 billion annually)
• Target Ho Chi Minh Trail N. Vietnam,
  Cambodia, Laos, S. Vietnam.
• 800 tons of bombs a day for 3 ½ years
• Agent Orange
• Result increased Nationalism in North and
  desire to win.
• July 1967 50 of American population
  disapproved of war.
• 1966 US Kicked out of France, France leaves NATO

13
Digging Deeper Into Vietnam
USS Maddox
Operation Rolling Thunder February 1965
October 1968
Mekong Delta, July 1969
14

• The 6-Day War Middle East
• June 5,1967 Egypt, Jordan and Syria attacked by
  Israel in pre-emptive strike.
• Israel wins West Bank, Golan Heights (annexed
  1981), Gaza Strip (Palestinian self-rule 1994),
  Sinai Peninsula (gave back 1982). 1 million Arabs
  under Israeli rule. 350,000 fled to Jordan

USS Independence sent to support Israel
15

• The Hawks V The Doves
• January 30, 1968 The TET Offensive N.
  Vietnam attacked 36 cities and US embassy
  simultaneously. Military loss, but political
  victory. Johnson orders 200,000 more troops.
• Before TET 56 of Americans Hawks, 28 Doves
• After TET 42 Doves, 41 Hawks
• Defense Secretary McNamara we were wrong

16

• The Election of 1968 Brings The End of LBJ
• People felt they had been lied to by government
• Longest, costliest, most unpopular war
• 100,000 casualties (58,196 killed), more bombs
  than WWII
• Teach-ins, draft dodging, burn draft cards,
  marches.
• Johnson orders CIA to start spying on US citizens
• Cointelpro FBI counterintelligence program.
• The Candidates of 1968
• Eugene McCarthy (MN) Catholic, Anti-War 41
  primary votes
• Johnson 49.6 primary votes
• Hubert Humphrey (VP)
• May 31, Johnson announces a troop freeze, and he
  will not seek re-election. Peace negotiations
  began May 10, 1968 in Paris.
• Bobby Kennedy gaining speed in primaries. June
  5, 1968 assassinated by Arab for his pro-Israeli
  views.

17
The Loss of Robert Bobby Kennedy
18

• The Election of 1968
• Democratic Convention Chicago. Heavy police
  force, barbed-wire. Humphrey won nomination and
  promised more troops and fight until the enemy
  gives up or negotiates.
• Republicans nominate Richard Nixon Pro-war,
  but moderate Republican anti-crime. VP
  Candidate Spiro Agnew
• American Independent Party George Wallace (Gov
  of AL) won 4 deep south states,
  anti-integration.
• Youth International Party nominated a PIG
  Pigasus
• This election represents
• when the Democrats of FDR
• switched sides and became
• the Republicans who would
• support Nixon. They now
• feared the left.

19

• The Counterculture of the 1960s
• Beatniks disillusioned with leadership,
  materialism, conformity
• 1967 Summer of Love
• Timothy Leary Turn on, tune in, drop out.
• 1969 Woodstock

The Who Then Now (Super Bowl 2010)
20
Feminist Victories and Defeats

• Feminism as a protest movement won important
  victories in the 1970s
• 1961 Kennedy Presidential Commission on Status
  of Women 1963 reported on discrimination. Rep
  Howard Smith (VA) added sex to Civil Rights Act
  of 1964 so it wouldnt pass it did!
• 1972 Congress passed Title IX of Education
  Amendments
• Prohibited sex discrimination in any federally
  assisted educational activity (including sports)
  By 1970 42 of college students are women
• 1972 Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) won
  congressional approval
• Equality of rights under the law shall not be
  denied or abridged by the United States or by any
  State on account of sex.
• 28 states ratified the amendment, making approval
  seem likely
• NOW Purpose of gaining full equality for
  American women
• 2nd Wave Feminism revived feminism for womens
  rights and opportunities in 60s and 70s

21
Feminist Victories and Defeats

• ERA defeat was feminists most bitter defeat
• Needed 38 states to be ratified
• Conservative Phyllis Schlafly led campaign
  against ERA
• ERA supporters were just bitter women seeking a
  constitutional cure for their personal problems
• ERA would lead to vast expansion of federal
  power, drafting of women into military,
  taxpayer-funded abortions, and same-sex marriages
• 1979 Congress extended deadline for
  ratification
• 1982 ERA died, 3 states short of 38 needed

22
Phyllis Schlafly
23
The Seventies in Black and White

• Bakke Case Reverse discrimination
• Racial quotas were unconstitutional but race
  could be taken into account as one factor in
  college admissions
• Most explosive racial controversy of 1970s was
  over integration busing
• Milliken v. Bradley integration did not have to
  take place across school district lines
• Reinforced division between poorer, minority
  inner city schools and nearly all white suburbs

24
Chapter 28The Stalemated Seventies

• Analyze the ways in which the Vietnam War
  heightened social, political, and economic
  tensions in the United States. Focus on the
  period 1964-1975

25
Nixon Vietnamizes the War Peace with Honor

• Vietnamization
• Nixons policy of withdrawing US troops from
  Vietnam (536,000 in 1968 - lt30,000 in 1972)
• South Vietnamese troops (with US money, weapons,
  training) would take over fighting their own war
• July 1969 Nixon Doctrine
• Stated that Asian nations facing communist
  subversion thru border conflicts could count on
  US financial support, but NOT military aid.

26
Nixon Vietnamizes the War

• Vietnamization and the doves
• November 16, 1969 Mobilization Day 500,000
  protestors in Washington, DC
• Nixon attacks the protestors
• Appeals to silent majority who supported the
  war
• Nixon called the antiwar protestors bums
• N. Vietnamese Demands
• Unified Vietnam
• Communist Control

27
Nixon Vietnamizes the War

• January 1970 the state of the war
• Draft age 18, average age of soldier 19
• Troops disproportionately nonwhite and poor
• College students and those with needed skills
  exempted from draft
• Armed forces in Vietnam were mostly the least
  privileged in U.S. society
• Troops fought booby traps and jungles
• Unable to distinguish friend from foe
• Troop morale
• Drug abuse, mutiny, sabotage, fragging their
  own officers
• Public opinion went even lower after revelations
  that US troops had massacred women and children
  (350) at My Lai in 1968
• US never tried to understand the Vietnamese
  character, traditions, culture history

28
The My Lai Massacre

Lieutenant William Calley paroled by Nixon.
Apologized in 2009.
29
Cambodianizing theVietnam War

• North Vietnamese and Viet Cong used Cambodia as
  base for troops, weapons, supplies
• Parts of Ho Chi Minh trail went through Cambodia
• March 1969 Nixon orders secret Air Raids in
  Cambodia.
• April 30, 1970 Troops invade Cambodia
• Late 1971 US troops leave, Communists fight back
• Khmer Rouge Pol Pot takes over in Cambodia,
  killing 1.7 of his own citizens, 11 million
  injured.
• May 1972 Nixon orders mining of NV ports

30
Cambodianizing theVietnam War

• Reaction to the invasion
• Students erupt in protest
• May 1970 Kent State Massacre
• National Guard fired into a crowd of student
  protesters
• 4 killed, 7 wounded
• Jackson State College, Mississippi
• Police fired at a student dormitory, killing 2
• 450 Colleges closed due to protests
• June 29, 1970 Nixon withdrew US troops from
  Cambodia (after only 2 months)

31
Cambodianizing the Vietnam War

• Effects of the Cambodia invasion
• Deepened divide between hawks and doves
• Pacifying the youth
• Period of draftability shortened from 8 years to
  1 year
• 1971 26th amendment passed, lowering voting age
  to 18
• Pentagon Papers
• June 1971 top-secret government study that
  documented mistakes and lies of Kennedy and
  Johnson regarding Vietnam
• Especially exposed the lie that started the war
  the Gulf of Tonkin incident
• Leaked by Daniel Ellsberg
• Senate overwhelmingly repealed the Gulf of Tonkin
  Resolution and tried to restrain Nixon (Summer
  1970)

32
Nixons Détente with Beijing(Peking) and Moscow

• Henry Kissinger Talented diplomatic negotiator
  leading architect of détente w/Soviet Union
  during Nixon Ford administrations (Natl Sec.
  Advisor Sec. of State) Favored secret deals
  Back Channels
• February 1972 Nixon traveled to China
• Shanghai Communiqué
• Both nations agreed to normalize relations
• Support entry to UN and official recognition -
  1978
• May 1972 Nixon traveled to Moscow
• USSR willing to make deals with US
• Fearful of US-backed China and needed US food
• Nixon began period of détente (relaxed tensions)
  with both communist powers
• USSR China fighting over border dispute

33
Nixons Détente with Beijing(Peking) and Moscow

• 1972 Nixon made 3 important agreements with
  China and USSR
• The Great Grain Deal
• 3-year agreement to sell USSR 750 million worth
  of grain
• Anti-ballistic missile (ABM) treaty
• Limited each side to 2 clusters of defensive
  missiles
• Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALTI)
• Freezing of number of nuclear missiles for 5
  years
• Limit of antiballistic missiles to 200

34
A New Team on theSupreme Bench

• The Warren Court
• Warren (Gov of CA) made chief justice in 1953 by
  Eisenhower
• Made series of decisions that drastically
  increased rights of individual freedom
• Escobedo v. Illinois (1964)
• Required police to inform an arrested person of
  right to remain silent
• Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
• Extended Escobedo decision to include right to a
  lawyer being present during questioning by police

35
A New Team on theSupreme Bench

• Engel v. Vitale (1962) and School District of
  Abington Township v. Schempp (1963)
• Court used First Amendment to prohibit required
  prayers (Engel) and Bible reading (Schempp) in
  public schools

36
A New Team on theSupreme Bench

• Conservatives had criticized the Court since 1954
  (Brown decision)
• Critics thought they ignored the Constitution in
  favor of social values
• Nixon undertook to change Courts philosophical
  makeup
• Strict interpretation of Constitution
• Stop meddling in social and political questions
• Southern strategy tried to nominate 2 judges
  from South opposed busing
• End of 1971 Nixon had appointed 4 (of 9)
  conservative members, including new chief justice
  Warren Burger
• The Burger Court
• Reluctant to undo the liberal rulings of Warren
  Court
• Issued most controversial decision of modern
  times, legalizing abortion

37
A New Team on theSupreme Bench

• Roe v. Wade
• State laws restricted abortion except to protect
  life of mother
• 1973 court agreed that women had right to
  abortion (right to privacy in her own body)
• Fetus had to be viable (able to live outside of
  the womb) before it could receive protection of
  the state

Everybody should have a birthday!
38
Bombing North Vietnam to the Peace Table

• Nixons peace in Vietnam
• Spring 1972 N. Vietnam invades demilitarized
  zone
• Nixon ordered furious 2-week bombing campaign of
  North Vietnam
• Blocked harbors with mines
• China and USSR did not react
• N. Vietnam backed off
• Kissinger sent to Paris for Peace Negotiations
• N.V. troops in S.V.
• Saigon govt stay in place until new elections
  (Gen Nguyen Von Thieu)
• POWs returned
• US troops withdrawn

39
The Nixon Landslide of 1972

• Foreign policy dominated the campaign of 1972
• 4 years since Nixon had promised to end the war
• Democrats nominated George McGovern
• Promised to pull all US troops out in 90 days
• Appealed to antiwar people, racial minorities,
  feminists, leftists, youth
• Alienated Democratic base working-class
• VP Candidate T. Eagleton was mentally unstable
  and was replaced.

40
The Nixon Landslide of 1972

• Nixons campaign
• He had wound down the Democratic war
• Troop levels went from 540,000 to 30,000
• 12 days before the election
• Kissinger announced that a peace agreement would
  come within a few days Peace is at hand
• Nixon won the election in a landslide
• McGovern had counted on large numbers of young
  people
• Fewer than 1/2 even registered to vote

41
The Nixon Landslide of 1972
Dont blame me, Im from Massachusetts
42
Bombing North Vietnam to the Peace Table

• January 23, 1973 North Vietnamese negotiators
  agreed to cease-fire
• North Vietnamese allowed to keep 145,000 troops
  in South Vietnam occupied 30 of the country
• Nixon called the cease-fire peace with honor
• Reality it was an American retreat
• Congress decreased in 1975, NV invaded April
  29, 1975 and took over SV, united country
  officially recognized in 1995.

43
Watergate Woes

• June 17, 1972 5 men arrested in Watergate
  apartment-office complex
• Trying to bug the Democratic headquarters
• Revealed they were working for Committee for the
  Re-election of the President (CREEP)
• Other dirty tricks Nixon carried out against
  enemies
• Forging documents to discredit Democrats
• Used IRS to harass people on enemies list
• Using FBI and CIA to prevent investigations

44
Great Tape Controversy

• 1973 1974 Senate committee conducted
  televised hearings about Watergate
• Nixon denied any prior knowledge of the break-in
  or any involvement in legal proceedings against
  the burglars
• John Dean accused president and others in White
  House of trying to cover up Watergate and silence
  the burglars
• Another aid revealed existence of secret taping
  system in White House (that could verify Deans
  testimony)
• Nixon refused to produce the tapes
• Bernstein Woodward of Washington D.C. break
  the story Deep Throat informant FBI W. Mark
  Felt (2005)

45
Great Tape Controversy

• Vice President Spiro Agnew
• October 1973 forced to resign for taking bribes
  
• Congress used 25th amendment (president nominated
  a successor and both houses confirmed him)
• Replaced Agnew with Gerald Ford, congressman from
  Michigan

46
Great Tape Controversy

• October 20, 1973 Saturday Night Massacre
• Nixon fired his own special prosecutor appointed
  to investigate Watergate
• He also fired his attorney general and deputy
  attorney general because they refused to go along
  with the firing

47
The Secret Bombing of Cambodia and the War Powers
Act

• Secret bombing of Cambodia
• July 1973 America learned that US had bombed
  North Vietnamese in Cambodia 3,500 times since
  March 1969
• While the bombing was happening, US officials had
  repeatedly guaranteed Cambodias neutrality
• Nixon continued large-scale bombing of Cambodia,
  even after January 1973 ceasefire with North
  Vietnam
• Repeatedly vetoed Congresss efforts to stop him
• Years of bombing destroyed Cambodia

48
The Secret Bombing of Cambodia and the War Powers
Act

• Cambodia after the US bombing
• Pol Pot ruled Cambodia from 1976 1979
• Brutal Communist dictator who killed 2 million
  people
• Rule ended with Vietnamese invasion in 1978

49
The Secret Bombing of Cambodia and the War Powers
Act

• November 1973 War Powers Act
• Passed over Nixons veto
• Required president to report to Congress within
  48 hours after committing troops to a foreign
  conflict or substantially enlarging US combat
  units in a foreign country
• Effects of Vietnam
• New Isolationism
• US cautious about foreign affairs after bloody
  misadventure in Vietnam

50
The Unmaking of a President

• Spring 1974 House Judiciary demanded Watergate
  tapes
• Nixon finally agreed to publication of relevant
  parts of the tapes, with many parts missing
• July 24, 1974 Supreme Court unanimously ruled
  that executive privilege gave president no
  right to withhold evidence relating to possible
  criminal activity

51
The Unmaking of a President

• Nixon made 3 tapes public of conversations with
  an aide on June 23, 1972 (was forced to)
• One contained Nixon ordering the aide to use the
  CIA to impede an inquiry by the FBI
• Convicted Nixon of being active part of the
  cover-up
• House Judiciary Drew up articles of impeachment
• Obstruction of justice, abuse of power as
  president, contempt of Congress
• Nixon resigns
• Republican leaders in Congress informed Nixon
  that impeachment was inevitable
• August 8, 1974 Nixon announced his resignation
  on TV
• Admitted some judgments that were wrong
• But claimed he had always acted in what I
  believed at that time to be the best interests of
  the nation

52
Our long national nightmare is over. Our
Constitution works our great Republic is a
government of laws and not of men.Gerald R.
Ford