Learning

1
Chapter 5

• Learning

2
Definition of Learning

• Any relatively permanent change in behavior
  brought about by experience or practice

3
Classical Conditioning

• Definition of Classical Conditioning
• Learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus
  other than the original, natural stimulus that
  normally produces the reflex
• Elements of Classical Conditioning
• Unconditioned Stimulus
• A naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an
  involuntary response
• Unconditioned Response
• An involuntary response to a naturally occurring
  or unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Stimulus
• Stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned
  reflex response by being paired with the original
  unconditioned stimulus
• Neutral Stimulus
• Stimulus that has no effect on the desired
  response
• Conditioned Response
• Learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus

4
Pavlovs Experiment

• - Brief Movie
• Figure 5.1 on page 173

5
Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Pairing of CS and UCS
• The CS must come before the UCS (had Pavlov rang
  the bell after the dogs salivated they would not
  have become conditioned)
• The CS and UCS must come very close together in
  time (Pavlov tried to stretch the time and saw no
  association)
• The neutral stimulus must be paired with the UCS
  several times, often many times, before
  conditioning can take place
• The CS is usually some stimulus that is
  distinctive or stands out from other competing
  stimuli. The bell was not a sound that was
  normally present in the laboratory and was
  distinct.

6
Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Stimulus Generalization- the tendency to respond
  to a stimulus that is only similar to the
  original conditioned stimulus with the
  conditioned response
• Stimulus Discrimination- the tendency to stop
  making a generalized response to a stimulus that
  is similar to the original conditioned stimulus
  because the similar stimulus is never paired with
  the unconditioned
• Stimulus Extinction- the disappearance or
  weakening of a learned response following the
  removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus
  (in classical conditioning) or the removal of a
  reinforcer (in operant conditioning)
• Spontaneous Recovery- the reappearance of a
  learned response after extinction has occurred

7
Higher Order Conditioning

• Insert image from p. 175

8
Other conditioning

• Conditioned Emotional Responses
• Emotional response that has become classically
  conditioned to occur to learned stimuli, such as
  a fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that
  occurs when seeing an attractive person
• Vicarious conditioning- classical conditioning of
  a reflex response or emotion by watching the
  reaction of another person
• Conditioned taste aversion
• Biological preparedness- referring to the
  tendency of animals to learn certain associations
  such as taste and nausea with only one or few
  pairings due to the survival value of learning

9
Why does Classical Conditioning Work

• Stimulus substitution- original theory in which
  Pavlov stated that classical conditioning
  occurred because the conditioned stimulus became
  a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by
  being paired closely together
• Robert Rescorla found that the CS had to provide
  some information about the coming UCS in order to
  achieve conditioning
• Rats received shock prior to tone stopping
  responded to tone with fear
• Rats that received shock only after tone stopped
  responded to stopping of the tone with fear

10
Operant Conditioning

• Definition- The learning of voluntary behavior
  through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant
  consequences to responses
• Thorndikes Puzzle Box
• B.F. Skinner

11
Reinforcement

• Reinforcement- any event or stimulus that when
  following a response increases the probability
  that the response will occur again
• Primary reinforcers- a reinforce that satisfies a
  basic need any reinforce that is naturally
  reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need,
  such as hunger, thirst, or touch candy is an
  example
• Secondary reinforcers- any reinforce that becomes
  reinforcing after being paired with primary
  reinforce, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars.

12
Reinforcement Cont.

• Positive reinforcement- the reinforcement of a
  response by the addition or experiencing of
  pleasurable stimulus
• Negative reinforcement- the reinforcement of a
  response by the removal, escape from, or
  avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus

13
Other Operant Concepts

• Shaping-the reinforcement of simple steps in
  behavior that lead to a desired, more complex
  behavior accomplished by successive
  approximations
• Successive approximations- small steps in
  behavior, one after the other, that lead to a
  particular goal behavior (training a dog to jump
  through a hoop)
• Discriminative stimulus- any stimulus such as a
  stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the
  organism with a cue for making a certain response
  in order to obtain reinforcement

14
Schedules of Reinforcement

• Partial reinforcement effect- the tendency for a
  response that is reinforced after some, but not
  all, correct responses to be very resistant to
  extinction (dog treats only sometimes after the
  dog shakes)
• Continuous reinforcement- the reinforcement of
  each and every correct response (dog treats after
  every time the dog shakes)

15
Schedules of Reinforcement (Ratio)

• Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement- schedule
  of reinforcement in which the number of responses
  required for reinforcement is always the same (3
  correct responses equal a star)
• Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement-schedule
  of reinforcement in which the number of responses
  required for reinforcement is different each
  trial or event (3 correct equals a star, then 1
  correct, then 5 correct, then 4 correct, then 2,
  etc) (slot machines are variable ratio)

16
Schedules of Reinforcement (interval)

• Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement-schedule
  of reinforcement in which the interval of time
  that must pass before reinforcement becomes
  possible is always the same (you must do 20
  minutes of homework and then you get a cookie)
• Variable interval schedule of reinforcement-
  schedule of reinforcement in which the interval
  of time that must pass before reinforcement
  becomes possible is different for each trial or
  event (if rat pushes lever once within a ten
  minute window, he might get a pellet at 2
  minutes, then at 5 minutes, then at 3 minutes,
  etc)

17
Punishment

• any event or object that when following a
  response, makes that response less likely to
  happen again
• By Application-the punishment of a response by
  the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant
  stimulus (given a speeding ticket for speeding)
• By removal-the punishment of a response by the
  removal of a pleasurable stimulus (toy is taken
  away, losing your license for speeding)

18
Punishment

• Problems
• How to make punishment more effective
• It should immediately follow the behavior it is
  meant to punish
• It should be consistent
• Punishment of wrong behavior should be paired
  when possible with the right behavior

19
Applying Operant Conditioning

• Behavior modification- the use of operant
  conditioning techniques to bring about desired
  changes in behavior
• Token economy- type of behavior modification in
  which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens
• Applied behavior analysis (ABA)- modern term for
  a form of behavior modification that uses shaping
  techniques to mold a desired behavior or response
• Biofeedback-using feedback about biological
  conditions to bring involuntary responses under
  voluntary control
• Neurofeedback

20
Cognitive Learning Theory

• Cognitive Learning Theory
• Tolmans Maze
• Seligmans Dogs
• Kohlers chimp

21
Observational Learning

• Bandura and Bobo
• Video
• Four Elements of Observational Learning
• Attention
• Memory
• Imitation
• Motivation