July, 2005

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• July, 2005

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The Field of InstructionalDesign and Technology

• Analysis of learning and performance problem,
• Design,
• Development,
• Implementation,
• Evaluation, and
• Management of instructional or non-instructional
  resources
• In educational institutes or workplaces

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• Teacher
• Chalkboard
• Textbook
• ?????????????
• Instructional (educational) media often refer to
  other physical means

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Media Historical Timeline

• 1840 Photography
• 1920 Radio Broadcast
• 1936 Black-White TV
• 1936 Color Film
• 1953 Color TV
• 1958 VCR
• 1989 Macintosh II with digital sound
• 1989 PC with Sound Blaster
• Internet 1,500MB/sec

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From Early 1900s

• School museums
• Visual and Audiovisual instructions
• Media use during World War II
• Instructional television
• Computer
• Internet

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School Museum

• First in St. Louis, 1905
• Exhibits, Stereographs (3-D photos)
• Slides, films, etc.
• Not intended to supplant teacher or textbook
• Supplementary curriculum materials

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Visuals and Audiovisuals

• Motion picture projectors
• First instructional film in 1910
• With advance in radio, sound-recording, sound
  motion picture, visual became audiovisual
  (1920s-1930s)
• Great commercial interests, but lost 50 million
  due to Great Depression
• Audiovisual continued to evolve
• Dale (1946) Cone of experience

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During World War II

• Audiovisual movement slowed down
• But extensively used in military
• 1943-1945 400 training films, 600 film strips
  produced for Army Air Force
• Little time to collect hard data for evaluation,
  but survey showed effective
• Amazed enemy (Germany)

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Post World War II

• Intensive research undertaken to identify
  principles of learning to facilitate design
• Findings largely ignored
• Media comparison studies usually showed students
  learned equally regardless of means of
  presentations
• Scholars argued studies should focus on media
  attributes, examination effects, or instructional
  methods

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Instructional Television

• Tremendous growth in 1950s
• Two factors
• 141 Channels set aside by FCC for public service
• 170 million sponsored by Ford Foundation
• Interests abated in 1960, perhaps due to mediocre
  instructional quality
• Instructional television was not widely adopted
  by schools. Why?
• Teachers resistance
• Expense and maintenance
• Not adequate for various conditions for learning

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Computers 1950-1995

• Early CAI done in IBM in 1950s
• 1960s-1970s PLATO (Programmed Logic for
  Automatic-Teaching Operations) in Illinois
• By 1970, little impact found on education
• In 1980s, wide spread interest for instructional
  use
• Less expensive
• More functions
• By 1983, computers used for instruction in more
  than 40 elementary, 75 secondary schools
• By mid-1990s, still small impact, few innovations

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Recent Development

• Rapid advance in computer Internet
• A survey of 750 companies (1999) Training via
  technology from less than 6 in 1996 to more than
  22 by 2000
• Between 94-95 and 97-98 academic years,
  enrollment of distance learning doubled
• Recent interest toward performance support

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• ???????????(eLearning), Taiwan
• 2002?, 5????40???
• FY1999, ????, 64???
• Visions 2020, USA
• Visioning exercise facilitated by Department of
  Commerce
• 14 Papers included
• Survey of International Investment in ET RD
• Published 2002, Funded by the Spencer Foundation
• Around the world FY1999, US 16 billion in
  educational technology

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1945 1997in The Atlantic Monthly

• As We May Think, 1945
• By Dr. Vannevar Bush (Father of multimedia)
• Scientific research for war?
• Inventions have extended man's physical powers
  rather than the powers of his mind.
• Computer Delusion, 1997
• By Todd Oppenheimer
• Questioning investment in computers in schools

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Father of MultimediaDr. Vannevar Bush
As We May Think, The Atlantic Monthly, 1945
Consider a future device for individual use,
which is a sort of mechanized private file and
library. It needs a name, and to coin one at
random, memex'' will do. A memex is a device
in which an individual stores all his books,
records, and communications, and which is
mechanized so that it may be consulted with
exceeding speed and flexibility. It is an
enlarged intimate supplement to his memory.
It consists of a desk, and while it can
presumably be operated from a distance, it is
primarily the piece of furniture at which he
works. On the top are slanting translucent
screens, on which material can be projected for
convenient reading. There is a keyboard, and
sets of buttons and levers. Otherwise it looks
like an ordinary desk.
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Computer DelusionTodd Opennheimer
The Atlantic Monthly, 1997
There is no good evidence that most uses of
computers significantly improve teaching and
learning, yet school districts are cutting
programs --- music, art, physical education ---
that enrich childrens lives to make room for
this dubious nostrum
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What were the visions?

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• Classroom as theater (Slides,16mm)
• Teaching machine (TV)
• Interactive and Fun (Multimedia)
• Individualized with no boundary (Hypermedia)

0210
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Classroom as Theatre
Thomas Edison, 1922
the motion picture is destined to
revolutionize our education system and in a few
years it will supplant largely, if not entirely,
the use of textbooks.
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Teaching Machine
Sydney Pressey, 1926
teaching machines are unique among
instructional aids, in that the student not
merely passively listen, watches, or reads but
actively responds. And as he does so he finds out
whether his response is correct or not. And a
record may be kept which aids in improving the
materials.
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Television as Teaching Machine
Edward R. Murrow, 1958
This instrument can teach, it can
illuminate yes, it can even inspire. But it can
do so only to the extent that humans are
determined to use it to those ends. Otherwise, it
is merely lights and wires in a box..
When two vowels go walking. 0130
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Teaching Machine
B. F. Skinner, 1961
A frame of textual material appearing in the
square opening is incomplete in place of certain
letters or figures there are holes. Letters or
figures can be made to appear in these holes by
moving slides... When the material has been
completed, the student checks his response if
they are correct, moves a new frame of material
into place
with the help of teaching machines and
programmed instruction, students could learn
twice as much in the same time and with same
effort as in a standard classroom.
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Richard E. Clark
Media Will Never Influence Learning, 1983 1994
The best current evidence is that media are
mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not
influence student achievement any more than the
truck that delivers our groceries causes changes
in our nutrition.
the choice of vehicle might influence the
cost or extent of distributing instruction.
it was not the medium which influenced
learning but instead certain attributes of media
that can be modeled by learners and can shape the
development of unique cognitive process.
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• 1976 ???? ????CAI
• 1986 ?????? ??CAI????
• 1990 TANET
• 1998 ??????
• 2000 ???EduCities
• 2002 eLearning

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Scientific American, 1889
the improvement in city condition by
general adoption of the motor car can hardly
overestimated. Street clean, dustless, and
odorless, with light rubber-tired vehicles moving
swiftly and noiselessly over smooth expanse,
would eliminate a great part of the nervousness,
distraction, and strain of modern metropolitan
life.
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Thomas C. Reeves, 1998 Learning from media and
technology

• Television
• No conclusive evidence, TV stultifies mind
• TV viewing not displaces academic activities
• Positive effectiveness Instructional TV,
  especially while production aided by real
  teachers
• No difference between live teacher and video
  presentation

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Thomas C. Reeves, 1998 Learning from media and
technology

• Computer-based Instruction
• Positive effectiveness in general as tutor
  Motivation and Standardized achievement test
• Less time to complete a given lesson
• No significant impact of intelligent tutoring due
  to technical difficulties

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Thomas C. Reeves, 1998 Learning with media and
technology

• Great effectiveness within constructivist
  learning environment
• Representing knowledge support deep reflective
  thinking
• Mindfulness and engagement
• Learning to learn, and wishing to innovate

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Emperors New Clothes? Jamie McKenzie, 1995

• Too often, lower order task and basic skills
  examined
• Too little work on measuring gains in higher
  order skills
• Biased research flawed methodology
• Little evidence that growth in skills persists
  beyond initial gadget stage