Cognition: Memory and its Parts Thinking and language

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Cognition Memory and its PartsThinking and
language

• Chapter 9 and 10
• AP Psychology

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Take out a piece of paper..

• Name the seven dwarves..

Now name them..
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Memory

• Memory A system that encodes, stores and
  retrieves information.

• While we are learning more about memory every
  day, psychologists still are unsure exactly what
  parts of the brain are involved and where it is
  all stored.

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Recall Versus Recognition

• you must retrieve the information from your
  memory
• fill-in-the blank or essay tests

• you must identify the target from possible
  targets
• multiple-choice tests

• Recall

• Recognition

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Memorys Three Basic Tasks

• According to the information-processing model,
  the human brain takes essentially meaningless
  information and turns it into meaningful
  patterns.
• It does this through three steps
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval

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Three Box Model of Memory
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Ebbinghaus and Memory

• Systematic and controlled study of memory in
  laboratory

H. Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
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Ebbinghaus and Memory

• Ebbinghaus
• Used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK MONUL WAV
  FALEM
• the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer
  repetitions to relearn on Day 2

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Ebbinghaus Retention Curve
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Ebbinghaus and Forgetting Curve

• Most forgetting occurs right after learning
• approx. 50 in first 40 min
• Relationship between delay and forgetting not
  linear

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Ebbinghaus and Memory

• Other important findings
• Beneficial effects of distributed practice for
  repetitions (ie., spacing effect)
• List-length effect

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3 Basic parts encoding

• Encoding the modification of information to fit
  the preferred format for the memory system.
• In most cases, encoding is automatic and happens
  without our awareness. Other encoding, however,
  like these notes, require extra encoding effort
  called elaboration to make the memory useful.

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Encoding Failure

• The standard telephone dial has ten numbers, one
  through nine plus zero. However, it doesnt have
  all 26 letters of the alphabet. Which letters
  dont appear on the dial?
• What is the color of the top stripe of the
  American flag? Bottom stripe? How many red and
  white stripes do it have (of each color)
• Most wooden pencils are not round. How many sides
  do they typically have?
• In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her
  torch?
• The White Hose is pictured on the back of a 20.
  What is on the back of a 10? A 5? A 1?
• What four words besides In God we Trust appear
  on most U.S. coins?

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Encoding

• Automatic Processing
• Effortful Processing

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Encoding-3 types

• When we are exposed to stimuli and encode
  information, we do it in three ways
• Semantic Encoding
• encoding of meaning
• including meaning of words
• Acoustic Encoding
• encoding of sound
• especially sound of words
• Visual Encoding
• encoding of picture images

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Encoding-Levels of Processing
Processing a word by its meaning (semantic
encoding) produces better recognition of it lat a
later time.
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3 basic parts storage

• Storage the retention of encoding material over
  time.
• In terms of storing material, we have three
  stages of memory
• Sensory Memory
• Working Memory (short-term memory)
• Long-term Memory (Deep memory)

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Synaptic Changes and storage

• One physical change in the brain during memory
  storage is in the synapses.
• Memories begin as impulses whizzing through the
  brain circuits, leaving a semi-permanent trace.
• The more a memory is utilized, the more potential
  strength that neuron has, called long-term
  potentiation.
• Neural basis for learning and remembering
  associations

This stuff gets super complicatedkeep it simple
for now
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Strengthening Ltp

• Research suggests that the best way to remember
  things is to study them and then sleep!
• Once LTP has occurred, even passing an electrical
  current through the brain will not erase well
  stored memories.
• More recent memories will be be wiped out
• People who have a concussion and cannot remember
  what happened just before or after the injury
  have not had a chance to consolidate their
  memories to the long-term

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3 basic parts retrieval

• Retrieval The locating and recovering of
  information from memory.
• While some memories return to us in a split
  second, other seemed to be hidden deeper, and
  still others are never recovered correctly.

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Eidetic imagery

• Eidetic imagery is a technical term for a
  photographic memory.
• Eidetic imagery can recall a memory in minute
  detail and portray the most interesting and
  meaningful parts most accurately. These images
  can last as short as a brief moment, or as long
  as days.
• Eidetic imagery tends to be more common in
  children, and seems to decline as a persons
  language abilities increase

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3 stages of memory

• We encode information and store it in one of
  three types of memory, depending on what we need
  the information for.
• Our memory works like an assembly line, and
  before information can make it to our long-term
  memory, it must first pass through sensory memory
  and working memory.

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Sensory memory

• Sensory memory is the shortest of our memories
  and generally holds sights, sounds, smells,
  textures and other sensory information for a
  fraction of a second.
• Sensory memory holds a large amount of
  information, far more than ever reaches
  consciousness.
• Sperlings experiment letters in rows, tone to
  indicate which row to recall.
• Sensory memories lasts just long enough to
  dissolve into the next one, giving us the
  impression of a constant flow.

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Sperlings Test

• George Sperling flashed a group of letters (see
  left) for 1/20 of a second. People could recall
  only about half of the letters
• When he signaled to recall a particular row
  immediately after the letters disappeared with a
  specific tone, they could do so with near-perfect
  accuracy.

K Z R
Q B T
S G N
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Sensory Memory

• Not all sensory memory consists of images, each
  sensory receptor has its own sensory register.
• Also, sensory images have no meaning associated
  with them, that is the job of the next stage,
  working memory.

• Visual Stimulation-iconic memory
• Auditory Stimulation-echoic memory
• Tactile Stimulation-tactile sensory memory
• Olfactory Stimulation-olfactory memory
• Gustatory Stimulation-gustatory memory

Working Memory
Long Term Memory
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Working Memory/Short Term/ Shallow Memory

• Working memory is often known as short term
  memory. It is the place where we sort and encode
  information before transferring it to long-term
  memory, or forgetting it.
• Generally, it holds information for about 20
  seconds, far longer than sensory memory.
• Most research suggest that we can hold seven
  pieces of information in our working memory,
  though it varies slightly.

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Another working memory test

• Badleys Three Systems of Working Memory
• Central executive controls our attention and
  coordinates working memory for a specific task
• Phonological loop stores and utilizes semantic
  (word) information
• Visuo-spatial sketchpad stores and utilizes
  speech based information

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Working memory

• Working memory is subject to two limitations
  limited capacity and short duration.
• We do have coping mechanisms, however
• Chunking
• Rehearsal

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• Fbiehsksuciausa

FBI EHS KSU CIA USA
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Chunking

• A chunk is any memory pattern or meaningful unit
  of memory.
• By creating these chunks, a process called
  chunking, we can fit more information into the
  seven available slots of working memory.
• Example 5036574100 vs.
• 503-657-4100

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Rehearsal

• Another memory technique is called maintenance
  rehearsal. This is a process where information is
  repeated to keep it from fading while in working
  memory.
• This process does not involve active
  elaboration-assigning meaning to the information.

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Levels of Processing

• In working memory, information can be elaborated
  on, or connected with long term memories.
• The Levels-of-processing theory says that
  information that is more thoroughly connected to
  meaningful items in long term memory will be
  remembered better.

Levels of Processing Theory
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Working memory location

• While the location in the brain of all three
  stages of memory are still not fully understood,
  the likely location for the working memory is in
  the frontal cortex.

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Long term memory/Deep Memory

• As far as anyone knows, there is no limit to the
  duration or capacity of the long term memory.
• Long term memory is essentially all of your
  knowledge of yourself and the world around you.
  Unless an injury or illness occurs, this memory
  is limitless.

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Structure and Function of LTM
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Long Term memory

• Procedural memory (implicit) is the part of long
  term memory where we store memories of how things
  are done.

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Long Term memory

• Declarative memory (explicit) is the part of long
  term memory where we store specific information
  such as facts and events.
• More often than procedural memory, declarative
  memory requires some conscious mental effort.

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Declarative Memory

• Declarative memory has two divisions
• Episodic Memory This is the portion of memory
  that stores personal events or episodes.
• This is the storage of things like time and
  place.
• Semantic Memory This portion of memory stores
  general knowledge, facts and language meaning.
• This is specifically where all the information
  you know is stored.

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Studies implicit vs. explicit

• People with amnesia who read a story once, will
  read it faster a second time, showing implicit
  memory.
• There is no explicit memory though as they cannot
  recall having seen the text before
• People with Alzheimer's who are repeatedly shown
  the word perfume will not recall having seen it.
• If asked the first word that comes to mind in
  response to the letters per, the say perfume
  readily displaying learning.

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Take out a piece of paper and name all the
Presidents
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Flashbulb memory

• Of all our forms of memory, a few are
  exceptionally clear and vivid. We call these
  flashbulb memories.
• These tend to be memories of highly emotional
  events. Typically people remember exactly where
  they were when the event happened, what they were
  doing and the emotions they felt.
• JFKs Assassination
• Ex. 9/11

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Retrieval

• Recall
• retrieve information learned earlier
• Recognition
• identify items previously learned

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Retrieval Cues

• Reminders of information we could not otherwise
  recall
• Guides to where to look for info
• Context Effects
• Priming
• the activation, often unconsciously, of
  particular associations in memory

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Retrieval
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Retrieval
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Retrieval

• Mood-Congruent Memory
• tendency to recall experiences that are
  consistent with ones current mood

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Engram

• The engram is the biological basis for long-term
  memory. It is also known as the memory trace.
• Psychologists have been trying to identify
  exactly where exactly memory is stored. There are
  currently two theories one involving the neural
  circuitry and the other at biological changes in
  synapses.

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Parts of the brain used in memory

• Two parts of the brain psychologists know for
  sure are involved in memory are the hippocampus
  and the amygdala.
• In a process called consolidation, information in
  the working memory is gradually changed over to
  long term memories.
• The amygdala seems to play a role in
  strengthening memories that have strong emotional
  connections.

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Two types of forgetting

• Retrograde Amnesia The inability to remember
  information previously stored in memory.
• Anterograde Amnesia The inability to form
  memories from new material.
• As memories form, neurotransmitters collect at
  the synapses, (before absolute threshold is
  crossed). These are called memory traces. A sharp
  blow to the head, or electric shock can prevent
  these traces from consolidating, making it hard
  to recall that information.

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Types of Amnesia and forgetting

• Retrograde amnesia is a form of amnesia where
  someone will be unable to recall events that
  occurred before the development of amnesia.
• Anterograde amnesia is a loss of the ability to
  create memories after the event that caused the
  amnesia occurs

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Types of memory

• When dealing with long term memory retrieval,
  there are two types of memory
• Implicit memory a memory that was not
  deliberately learned-no conscious awareness
• Ex. Muscle memorythrowing a ball
• Explicit memory a memory that had been processed
  with attention and can be consciously recalled.
• Ex. The three stages of memory
• General rule a memory is implicit if it can
  affect behavior or mental processes without
  becoming fully conscious. Explicit memories
  always involve consciousness.

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Retrieval clues

• Retrieval clues are the search terms we use to
  activate memorythink of a Google search. The
  more specific you are, the better the results
  will be.
• Some memories are easily remembered, while others
  are much harder to bring up. For example, if you
  draw a blank on a test, it may be a result of the
  wording on the test not being the same as the
  wording you used while studying.

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RECALL AND RECOGNITION

• Memories can be cued in two ways
• Recall a retrieval method in which one must
  reproduce previously presented material.
• Ex. Essay test police sketch of a suspect
• Recognition a retrieval method in which one
  must identify information that is provided, which
  has previously been presented.
• Ex. Multiple choice test police line-up

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Other factors affecting retrieval

• Encoding specificity principal the more closely
  the retrieval clues match way the information was
  encoded, the better the information will be
  remembered.
• Think Google search
• Mood-congruent memory a theory which says we
  tend to selectively remember memories that match
  (are congruent with) our current mood.
• Has an affect on how people are treated for
  medical conditions

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Memory Construction

• We often construct our memories as we encode
  them, and we may also alter our memories as we
  withdraw them
• We infer our past from stored information and
  what we assume
• By filtering information and filling in missing
  pieces, our schemas (understanding of specific
  settings) direct our memory construction

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Misinformation

• As memory fades with time following an event, the
  injection of misinformation becomes easier.
• Misinformation effect incorporating misleading
  information into ones memory of an event.
• Imagination inflation occurs because visualizing
  something and actually perceiving it activate
  similar brain areas.

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Misinformation effect

• Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

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Repressed Memories

• During the 1990s, the idea of repressing painful
  memories became a big topic.
• While some psychoanalysts still support the idea
  of repressed memories, most psychologists agree
  that events that are traumatic are typically
  etched on the mind as vivid, persistent, haunting
  memories.

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forgetting

• As you know, not all the information you learn
  will stick in your brain. According to Daniel
  Schacter, this is the result of one of the seven
  sins of memory
• Transience
• Absent-mindedness
• Blocking
• Misattribution
• Suggestibility
• Bias
• Persistence

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Forgetting
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1) transience

• Transience the impermanence of long-term
  memories-based on the idea that memories
  gradually fade in strength over time-also known
  as decay theory.
• Ebbinghauss Forgetting Curve
• For most memories, there is a sharp decline in
  memory, followed by declining rate of loss

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2) Absent-mindedness

• Absent-mindedness forgetting caused by lapses in
  attention.
• Ex. Forgetting where you parked losing your keys

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3) blocking

• Blocking forgetting when a memory cannot be
  retrieved because of interference.
• Proactive Interference When an old memory
  disrupts the learning and remembering of a new
  memory.
• Ex. Trying to put the dishes away at a new house
• Retroactive Memory When a new memory blocks the
  retrieval of an old memory.
• Ex. Driving an automatic after driving a manual

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Serial Position effect

• The serial position effect is a form of
  interference related to the sequence in which
  material is presented.
• Generally items in the middle are remembered
  less.
• Primacy relative ease of remembering the first
  information in a series.
• Recency Strong memories of the most recent
  information in a series
• Info in the middle is exposed to both
  retroactively and proactively.

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Encoding Serial Position Effect
Serial Position Effect--tendency to recall best
the last items in a list
Immediate recall Later recall
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4) misattribution

• Misattribution Memory faults that occur when
  memories are retrieved, but are associated with
  the wrong time, place or person.
• Ex. Psychologist Donald Thompson accused of rape.
  Alibi was airtight as he was giving a TV
  interview the victim had been watching just prior
  to the assault.

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5) suggestibility

• Suggestibility The process of memory distortion
  as the result of deliberate or inadvertent
  suggestion.
• Eyewitness accounts are one a large part of our
  legal system. Unfortunately they can be
  incredibly faulty.
• With the misinformation effect, memories can be
  embellished or even created by cues and
  suggestions.

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6) bias

• Bias The influence of personal beliefs,
  attitudes and experiences on memory.
• Expectancy Bias A memory tendency to distort
  recalled events to fit ones expectations.
• Self-consistency Bias A commonly held idea that
  we are more consistent in our attitudes and
  beliefs, over time, than we actually are.

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7) persistence

• Persistence A memory problem where unwanted
  memories cannot be put out of our mind.
• Depressed people cannot stop thinking about how
  bad their life is and how unhappy they are. It
  can create a self-fulfilling problem.
• Psychologists think that emotions strengthen the
  physical changes in the synapses that hold our
  memories, thus highly emotional memories can be
  harder to put out of mind.

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Forgetting isnt all bad

• According to Schacter, the seven sins are
  actually a normal part of human memory, and are
  the results of adaptive features in our memories.
• According to Schacter, each of the sins is for
  a reason
• Transience-to prevent memory overload
• Blocking-to focus on task at hand
• Absent-mindedness-ability to shift attention
• Misattribution/bias/suggestibility-to focus on
  meaning and not detail
• Persistence-to remember especially emotional
  memories

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Biology of Memory

• Karl Lashley (1950)
• trained rats to solve maze, then cut out pieces
  of their cortex and retested their memory of maze
• partial memory retained

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Biology of Memory

• Lashley found beer to have same effects as cortex
  removal on rat maze performance

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Biology of Memory

• Hippocampus
• Involved in explicit memory
• Cerebellum
• Involved with implicit memory
• Skills, conditioning, procedural memory

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Biology of Memory

• Hippocampus
• Involved in explicit memory
• Cerebellum
• Involved with implicit memory
• Skills, conditioning, procedural memory

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Improve Your Memory

• Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate
  situation and mood
• Minimize interference
• Test your own knowledge
• to rehearse it
• to determine what you do not yet know

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Cognition language and thinking

• Chapter 10
• AP Psychology

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Language Acquisition

• One of the defining characteristics of humans is
  the use of complex language-our ability to
  communicate.
• Newborn children know zero words in English, or
  any other language. Yet they have innate
  abilities to become fluent speakers of any
  language they hear spoken, or signed regularly.

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Innateness-Theory of Language

• According to the innateness-theory of language,
  children acquire language not only by imitating
  but also by following preprogrammed steps to
  acquire language.
• Noam Chomsky-Language Acquisition Device-LAD a
  mental structure that facilitates the learning of
  language because it is preprogrammed with
  fundamental language rules.
• Globally, all children follow the same pattern of
  language acquisition.
• LAD is flexible-any language is possible

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Language

• Language is our spoken, written, or gestured
  works and the way we combine them to communicate
  meaning.
• Phoneme is the smallest distinctive sound unit
• Morpheme is the smallest unit that carries
  meaning
• may be a word or a part of a word (such as a
  prefix)
• -ed/-d past tense -s plural
• Grammar, then, is a system of rules in a language
  that enables us to communicate with and
  understand other

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Language

• Semantics is the set of rules by which we derive
  meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a
  given language.
• also, the study of meaning
• Syntax is the rules for combining words into
  grammatically sensible sentences in a given
  language.
• Do you want to go to the store? vs. Store to go
  want to do you?

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Stages of Early language
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Language Stages

• There are four phases of early speech acquisition
  that all students pass through
• Babbling Stage
• Beginning at 3 to 4 months
• The stage of speech development in which the
  infant spontaneously utters various sounds at
  first unrelated to the household language, but
  noises that represent every sound heard in every
  language
• One-Word Stage
• From about age 1 to 2
• The stage in speech development during which a
  child speaks mostly in single words

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Language

• Two-Word Stage
• Beginning about age 2
• The stage in speech development during which a
  child speaks in mostly two-word statements
• Telegraphic Speech
• Early speech stage in which the child speaks like
  a telegram-go car--using mostly nouns and
  verbs and omitting auxiliary words

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Language

• New language learning gets harder with age

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COGNITIONG/THINKING

• A concept is a mental grouping of similar
  objects, events, ideas, or people
• Prototype is a mental image or best example of a
  category-formed on the basis of frequently
  experienced features.
• Testing concepts can be hard since they are not
  observable. We must infer their influence on
  peoples thinking indirectly by studying their
  observable side effects.
• Concept of the color red

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Types of Concepts

• There are two types of concepts
• Natural concepts imprecise mental
  classifications that develop out of our everyday
  experiences.
• Most of the concepts in our everyday life
• Artificial concepts concepts defined by a set of
  rules or characteristics, such as dictionary
  definition or mathematical equations.
• Most of the concepts learned in school

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Framing

• Putting language into the context that you want
  it to be seen.

The fat hog
brought us a lot of money at market
of a woman cut in front of me in line
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Talking with Hands

• Say hello to them
• Then make them angry
• Then make-up with them.

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Cognitive Maps

• As we saw before, cognitive maps are mental
  representations of a given place or situation.
• Just the mental image is not enough however.
  Along with the visual cortex, the frontal lobe of
  the brain provides us with information on the
  episode, the context and stimulus of a situation.
• Ex. Answering the phone at a friends house

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Making Inferences

• To help us figure out the episode, the context
  and stimulus of a situation we do have tools
• Schema General frameworks that provide
  expectations about topics, events, objects,
  people and situations.
• Assimilation vs. Accommodation
• Script Schemas about sequences of events and
  actions expected to occur in particular settings.

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Problem Solving

• When we are faced with a problem, we have a few
  options for figuring out a solution.
• Steps to solving
• 1- Identify the problem
• 2- Define that problem and decide how it needs to
  be approached
• 3- Select a solution to that problem
• 4- Attack the problem and evaluate how its going.
• WAYS TO GO ABOUT THIS!
• Algorithms Problem solving procedures or
  formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if
  correctly applied
• Heuristics Simple, basic rules that serve as
  shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks.
• They do not guarantee a correct solution

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Possible Solution Strategies

• Trial and error
• Works best with limited number of choices
• Information retrieval
• Retrieve from memory information about how such a
  problem has been solved in the past
• Algorithms
• Step-by-step methods that guarantees a solution
• Methodical, logical rules or procedures that
  guarantee solving a particular problem.
• Math problems are an example of the type best
  solved using an algorithm
• Heuristics
• Rules of thumb that may help simplify a problem,
  but do not guarantee a solution.
• They are quicker than algorithms

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Algorithms vs. Heuristics

• Unscramble
• S P L O Y O C H Y G
• Algorithm
• all 907,208 combinations of possible answers
• Heuristic
• throw out all YY combinations- arent any in
  English
• Decide setting in which the problem presents
  itself
• Most possible solution?
• other heuristics?

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Algorithmically Solving

• Positive- You will, without fail, find the
  correct answer!
• Negatives- It could take a very long time

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Heuristic Methods

• Hill climbing
• Move progressively closer to goal without moving
  backward
• Sub-goals
• Break large problem into smaller, more manageable
  ones, each of which is easier to solve than the
  whole problem

• Means-end analysis
• Aims to reduce the discrepancy between the
  current situation and the desired goal subgoals
  not immediately in the solution direction are
  considered
• Working backward
• Work backward from the desired goal to the
  existing condition

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Hill Climbing Heuristic

• Move progressively closer to goal without moving
  backward

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Sub-goals

• Break large problem into smaller, more manageable
  ones, each of which is easier to solve than the
  whole problem

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Means-end analysis

• Aims to reduce the discrepancy between the
  current situation and the desired goal subgoals
  not immediately in the solution direction are
  considered

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Working backward

• Work backward from the desired goal to the
  existing condition

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Heuristic Solving

• Positive- usually will get you to a correct
  answer and is very quick.
• Negatives- Often we have obstacles in the way of
  our problem solving. Also the quick answer, the
  OBVIOUS answeris wrong!

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The Matchstick Problem

• How would you arrange six matches to form four
  equilateral triangles?

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The Three-Jugs Problem

• Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities
  shown, how would you measure out the volumes
  indicated?

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The Candle-Mounting Problem

• Using these materials, how would you mount the
  candle on a bulletin board?

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Problems with Heuristics

• One problem with heuristic are mental sets.
• When faced with problems, we have a tendency to
  approach it in a familiar way.
• Especially a way that has been successful in the
  past but may or may not be helpful in solving a
  new problem
• Mental set the tendency to respond to a new
  problem in the manner used for previous problems.

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Problems With Heuristics

• Another problem with relying on heuristics is
  called functional fixedness, a sort of mental set
  issue.
• Functional Fixedness The inability to perceive a
  new use for an object associated with a different
  purpose.

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Motivation

• If you dont attempt to solve a problem you wont.

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The Matchstick Problem

• Solution to the matchstick problem

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The Three-Jugs Problem

• Solution
• a) All seven problems can be solved by the
  equation shown in (a) B - A - 2C desired
  volume.
• b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and
  7, such as A - C for problem 6.

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The Candle-Mounting Problem

• Solving this problem requires recognizing that a
  box need not always serve as a container

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Judging and Decision making

• Along with mental sets, bias can make heuristics
  a faulty decision making tool.
• Confirmation bias- Tendencey to look for only
  those things that help prove Im RIGHT!
• Hindsight bias Tendency to second guess a
  decision after the event has happened.
• Representative bias Judging the likelihood of
  things in terms of how well they seem to match
  particular prototype
• Availability bias Estimating the likelihood of
  events based on their availability in memory
• if instances come readily to mind we presume such
  events are common

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Problems and Decisions

• Problem solving the task is to come up with new
  solutions
• Decision making a type of problem solving in
  which we already know the possible options.

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Heuristics in Decision Making

• Short-cuts learned from experience, that people
  use to make decisions typically when facing
  complex problems or incomplete information
• Assumptions
• Two Types
• Availability heuristic
• Representativeness Heuristic.

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Representativeness Heuristic

• You make a decision based upon how much something
  represents, or matches up, with characteristics
  from your schema, or the typical case.

Good School
It matches my party school schema so I decide
it is bad school.
Bad School School
115
Representativeness Heuristic in action.
Decide where they are from.
116
Representativeness Heuristic in action.

• Susan is very shy and withdrawn, invariably
  helpful, but with little interest in people, or
  in the world of reality. A meek and tidy soul,
  she has a need for order and structure, and a
  passion for detail.
• Is Susan a Librarian, a Teacher, or a Lawyer?

117
Representativeness Heuristic in action.

• Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and
  very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a
  student, she was deeply concerned with issues of
  discrimination and social justice, and also
  participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.
• Is Linda a Bank Teller? Or Is Linda a feminist
  Bank Teller?

118
Truth or Lie

• Something that happened to me during grade
  school.
• I made fun of James and my teacher encouraged
  it.
• My favorite meal Sushi
• My earliest memory 6th birthday party
• My favorite vacation trip - Disney
• A high point of my high school days Band
• The most influential person in my life - Dad
• My favorite teacher Mr. Smith
• The part of the country in which Id most like to
  live Pacific Northwest
• A surprising talent that I have Cook like a
  BOSS
• Something interesting about a member of my family
  Wife is a trained singer.

119
Availability Heuristic

• Operates when we make decisions on how available
  information is. The faster people can remember
  an instance of some event the more they expect it
  to occur.

120
Availability Heuristic in Action

• Which household chores do you do more frequently
  than your partner? (e.g. washing dishes, taking
  out the trash, etc.)
• - wives report 16/20 chores
• - husbands report 16/20 chores
• Ross and Sicoly (1979)
• Why? Availability!
• - I remember lots of instances of taking out the
  trash, washing dishes, but I do not remember lots
  of instance of my wife doing it

121
Availability Heuristic

• Why does our availability heuristic lead us
  astray? Whatever increases the ease of retrieving
  information increases its perceived availability.

How is retrieval facilitated?

1. How recently we have heard about the event.
2. How distinct it is.

122
Which causes more deaths per 100,000?

• All accidents or strokes
• Blood poisoning or suicide
• Homicide or diabetes
• Motor vehicle accidents or colorectal cancer
• leukemia or Drowning

123
Exaggerated Fear

• The opposite of having overconfidence is having
  an exaggerated fear about what may happen. Such
  fears may be unfounded.
• The 9/11 attacks led to a 20 decline in air
  travel due to fear.

124
Which causes more deaths per 100,000?

• All accidents (35.7) vs. strokes (57.4)
• Suicide (10.4) vs. blood poisoning (11.3)
• Homicide (7.1) vs. diabetes (25.1)
• Motor vehicle accidents (15.7) vs. colorectal
  cancer (18.9)
• Drowning (1.1) vs. leukemia (7.8)

125
Which city has the higher crime index?

• Detroit or Myrtle Beach
• Chicago or Baltimore
• Manhattan or Gary, India
• Boston or Flint
• Montreal or Hot Springs
• San Francisco or Durham

126
Answers

• Detroit (crime index 531) vs. Myrtle Beach
  (597)
• Chicago (335) vs. Baltimore (479)
• Manhattan (152) vs. Gary (544)
• Boston (223) vs. Flint (329)
• Montreal (181) vs. Hot Springs (201)
• San Francisco (176) vs. Durham (216)

127
Overconfidence

• Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the
  accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

At a stock market, both the seller and the buyer
may be confident about their decisions on a stock.
128
Confirmation Bias

• While we make a decision, we actively look for
  information that confirms our ideas

129
Belief Bias

• The tendency of ones preexisting beliefs to
  distort logical reasoning by making invalid
  conclusions.

Democrats support free speech Dictators are not
democrats Dictators do not support free speech.
God is love. Love is blind Ray Charles is
blind. Ray Charles is God. Anonymous graffiti
We more easily see the illogic of conclusions
that run counter to our beliefs than those that
agree with our beliefs.
130
Belief Perseverance

• Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to
  our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.

131
Bias after the process

• Hindsight Bias
• a tendency to think that one would have known
  actual events were coming before they happened,
  had one been present then or had reason to pay
  attention.
• a.k.a Monday morning quarterback.
• I-knew-it-all-along effect, reflecting a common
  response to surprise.

132
Decision Making and Judgements

• Decision making/judgments are special cases of
  problem solving in which possible solutions or
  choices are already known
• Logical decision making
• Compensatory model
• Rational decision-making model in which choices
  are systematically evaluated on various criteria
• Example buying a car
• Good when issues are well-defined