Review of Memory

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Review of Memory

• Mrs. Hensley
• AP Psychology

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Q1

• How do psychologists describe the human memory
  system?

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Q1 Answer

• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
• Three stages
• Encoding
• Storing
• Retrieval
• Some psychologists prefer the term, working
  memory rather than short term memory to
  emphasize the active processing in the 2nd stage.

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Q2

• How do we get information out of memory?

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Q2 Answer

• Recall
• Recognition
• Relearning
• Priming

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Q3

• Why do we forget?

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Q3 Answer

• Fail to encode information
• Memories may fade after storage
• Retrieval failure (old and new material compete)
• Proactive interference (something in the past
  interferes with our ability to recall something
  recently learned)
• Retroactive interference (something new
  interferes with something learned in the past)

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Q4

• Explain the following terms
• Flashbulb memory
• Amnesia
• Déjà vu
• Mood congruent memory

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Q4 Answer

• Flashbulb Memory clear memory of an emotionally
  significant moment or event
• Ex first kiss, learning of family members
  death, 9/11 attack
• Amnesia loss of memory, unable to form new
  memories
• déjà vu Ive experienced this before.
  Subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
  experience
• Mood congruent memory recall experiences that
  are consistent with ones current good or bad mood

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Thinking, Language, Intelligence

• The best way to have a good idea is to have lots
  of ideas.
• Lines Pauling

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Thinking

• What is it?
• Mental activity involved in understanding,
  processing and communicating information
• Cognitive psychology
• Studies how the mind does all that!

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Concept Formation

• Concept
• A mental grouping of persons, places, ideas,
  events, or objects that share common properties
• People organize concepts into hierarchies

Dog, horse, elephant, sparrows, goldfish
mammal
animal
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Concept Formation

• Prototype
• Best representative of a concept
• Ex Sport
• Football
• Basketball
• Golf
• Chess
• NASCAR

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Assignment

• Create a list of the different concepts that are
  represented in the classroom. Try to narrow down
  all the objects into the simplest concept
  possible.

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Problem Solving Trial Error

• Identify problem
• Car wont start
• Gather information
• Outta gas? Dead battery?
• Try a solution
• Not outta gas, so Ill dry off the wires
• Evaluate results
• Car starts - yeah!
• Car doesnt start - try another solution

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Problem Solving Strategies

• Algorithm
• A systematic, step-by-step problem-solving
  strategy, guaranteed to provide a solution
• Heuristic
• A rule of thumb that allows one to make judgments
  that are quick but often in error

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Heuristics

• A short cut (that can be prone to errors).
  Narrows your problem space
• We use heuristics when making decisions

Who would you trust to baby-sit your child?
Your answer is based on your heuristic of their
appearances.
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Availability Heuristic

• Estimating the likelihood of events based on
  their availability in our memory.

Although diseases kill many more people than
accidents, it has been shown that people will
judge accidents and diseases to be equally fatal.
This is because accidents are more dramatic and
are often written up in the paper or seen on the
news on t.v., and are more available in memory
than diseases.

• If it comes to mind easily (maybe a vivid event)
  we presume it is common.

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Representativeness Heuristic
Below is Linda. She loves books and hates loud
noises. Is Linda a librarian or a beautician?

• A rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of
  things in terms of how well they match our
  prototype.
• Can cause us to ignore important information.

Chances are, she is a beautician!!!
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Problem Solving Strategies

• Insight (insight examples pg. 387)
• Mean-end analysis
• determining difference between current situation
  and goal and then reducing the difference by
  means What can I do?
• Difference Reduction - What direction do I move?

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Decision Making

• Try to make best choice from alternatives
• Utility value of given outcome
• Probability likelihood youll achieve it
• Representativeness Heuristic
• A tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event
  in terms of how typical (how similar to the
  prototype) it seems
• Availability Heuristic
• A tendency to estimate the
• likelihood of an event in terms of
• how easily instances of it can be
• recalled

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Problems with Problem Solving

• Mental set
• The tendency to use a strategy that has worked in
  the past
• Functional Fixedness
• A tendency to think of objects only in terms of
  their usual functions, a limitation that disrupts
  problem solving

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Problems with Problem Solving

• Confirmation Bias
• The inclination to search only for evidence that
  will verify ones beliefs
• Belief Perseverance
• The tendency to cling to beliefs even after they
  have been discredited
• Anderson (1980)

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Overconfidence

• The tendency to be more confident than correct.
• To overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and
  judgments.

Considering overconfidence who you want to risk
1 million dollars on an audience poll?
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Framing

• The way an issued is posed.
• It can have drastic effects on your decisions and
  judgments.

How do you think framing plays a part in the
Health Care Reform debate?
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Intelligence

• How is it defined?
• How is it measured?
• What can intelligence be attributed to?
• Levels of intelligence

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Language

• Formal system of communication
• Spoken,written, and/or gestures
• Between 5,000 and 6,000 languages, worldwide
• Most languages also have many dialects

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Structure of Language

• Grammar
• The rules of a language
• Syntax
• Specifies how words can be arranged
• Semantics
• Specifies how meaning is
• understood communicated

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Properties of Language

• Semantic
• There are separate units in a language and these
  units have meaning
• Phoneme basic building block of spoken language
• Morpheme smallest unit that carries meaning
• Generative
• Combing language in novel ways
• Displacement
• The property of language that accounts for the
  capacity to communicate about matters that are
  not in the here-and-now

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Language Acquisition

• Birth
• Cooing, crying, gurgling
• 4-6 months
• Babbling
• 12 months
• First words
• 2 yrs up
• Telegraphic speech
• Overextension

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Language Acquisition

• No one disputes the stages of language
  development
• But there are two main questions in terms of what
  it all means
• Is language acquisition a product of nature or
  nurture?
• Which comes first language or thought?

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the answers

• Is it nature or nurture?
• Skinner vs. Chomsky
• Skinner Children learn language the way animals
  learn mazes
• Chomsky The brain is hard-wired for learning
  lang.
• Critical period
• During the first few years of life, we are most
  receptive to language learning
• What comes first thought or language?
• Both sometimes children use words to communicate
  what they already know and sometimes they form
  concepts to fit the words they hear

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Linguistic Relativity

• The hypothesis that language determines, or at
  least influences, the way we think

Eyeglasses
Dumbbell

• Hyde, 1984
• Wudgemaker story he she he or she they
• Males equally good regardless
• Females better in she stories, worse in he
  version

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Intelligence

• the test of a first-rate intelligence is the
  ability to hold two opposed ideas in the mind at
  the same time, and still retain the ability to
  function
• F. Scott Fitzgerald

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Intelligence

• What is intelligence?
• The capacity to learn from experience and adapt
  successfully to ones environment
• Reflects how well we function

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Video

• http//learner.org/resources/series138.html

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History of Intelligence

• Francis Galton
• Believed that intelligence was inherited
• Based intelligence on
• Muscular strength
• Size of your head
• Speed at reacting to signals
• Your ability to detect slight differences

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Solve the riddle

• A hunter sees a bear 1 mile due south. He shoots
  and misses, and the bear runs off. The hunter
  walks the 1 mile south to where the bear had
  been, then 1 mile due east, then 1 mile due
  north-at which point the hunter is standing again
  at exactly the same spot from which the gun had
  been fired. Question What color was the bear?
  Where on the globe is the hunter? Where can one
  go, successively, 1 mile due south, then 1 mile
  due east, then 1 mile due north, and end up at
  the same place one started?

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Theories of Intelligence

• Spearmans G factor (1904)
• Proposed that general intelligence (g) underlies
  all mental abilities
• Specific intelligence (s)
• Factor analysis
• A statistical technique used to identify clusters
  of test items that correlate with another
• Thurstones Primary Mental Abilities
• 7 factors which correlate but not enough to
  represent 1 underlying factor
• Verbal comprehension, word fluency, number
  facility (math), associative memory, perceptual
  speed for stimulus recognition, reasoning, and
  spatial visualization

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Theories of Intelligence

• Triarchic theory of intelligence
• Robert Sternberg
• Analytical
• The mental steps of components used to solve
  problems
• This is what traditional IQ tests assess
• Creative
• Intellectual and motivational processes that lead
  to novel solutions, ideas, artistic forms, or
  products
• Practical
• The ability to size up new situations and adapt
  to real-life demands

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Gardners Frames of Mind

• Multiple intelligences
• There are seven (9)types of intelligence
• Linguistic verbal aptitude
• Logical-mathematical mathematical aptitude
• Spatial ability to visualize objects
• Musical ability to appreciate the tonal
  qualities of sound, compose, and play
• Bodily-kinesthetic ability to control movement
• Interpersonal ability to understand people
• Intrapersonal ability to understand oneself

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EQ (Emotional Intelligence)

• Salovey and Mayer (1990)
• Self-awareness
• Mood management
• Self-motivation
• Inpulse control
• People skills

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Reading The EQ Factor

• Take the Emotional Intelligence Survey
• Read the article and prepare for a socratic
  seminar
• To prepare
• Create a summary
• Identify 3 sentences/paragraphs that highlight
  something you found interesting, powerful,
  puzzling
• Create 3 Qs for class discussion

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Binet-Simon Stanford-Binet Scales

• Binet-Simon scale (1905)
• Assigned mental age based on items correct
• Stanford-Binet
• Lewis Terman at Stanford (1916)
• Added items suitable to adults
• Converted scale to a single score
• IQ mental age x 100
• chronological age
• This doesnt work for adults was adjusted

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Problems with the IQ Formula

• It does not really work well on adults, why?

If a 60 year old man
does as well as an average 30 year old
then his IQ would be 50!!!!!!
That makes no sense!!!!!
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The Wechsler Scales

• David Weschler
• Intelligence is
• The global capacity to act purposefully, to think
  rationally, and to deal effectively with the
  environment
• IQ ratio breaks down as we get older
• Deviation IQ
• Compares scores to the mean of peer group
• WAIS (pg 279)
• Measures intelligence for late adolescence
  through adulthood
• Two parts verbal performance subtests

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Issues to Consider in IQ Testing

• Standardization
• The procedure by which existing norms are used to
  interpret an individuals test score
• Reliability
• Degree to which test gives consistent results
• Validity
• Does the test measure what it
• claims to measure

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Distribution of IQ scores
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Mental Retardation
Mentally Gifted
95
100
115
85
130
70
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Extremes in Intelligence

• Mental Giftedness
• IQ above 130
• MENSA
• Limits membership to top 2 of population
• Take test. Are you Mensa quality?
• Watch clip on Daniel Tannet

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Extremes in Intelligence

• Mental retardation
• IQ below 70
• Difficulties with
• Self-care
• School / work
• Social relationships
• Four categories
• Mild, Moderate, Severe, Profound

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Causes of Mental Retardation

• Cultural-familial
• Inadequate mental stimulation
• Poor diet, little or no medical care
• Genetic defects
• Down syndrome
• Brain damage
• Fetal alcohol syndrome
• Hypoxia

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The Nature Nurture Debate

• Natures influence on IQ
• Identical twins reared together are more similar
  than fraternal twins reared together
• Siblings who grow up together are more similar
  than unrelated individuals who grow up in the
  same house
• Children are more similar to their biological
  parents than to adoptive parents
• Nurtures influence on IQ
• Prenatal care, exposure to alcohol and other
  toxins, birth complications, malnutrition in the
  first few months of life, intellectual
  stimulation at home, stress, high-quality
  education, the amount of time spent in school
• Head Start programs (and those like it)