Unit 4: Learning and Cognitive Processes

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Unit 4 Learning and Cognitive Processes

• Ch 9 Learning Principles and Applications
• Ch 10 Memory and Thought
• Ch 11 Thinking and Language
• Ch 12 Motivation and Emotion

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Ch 9 Learning Principles and Applications

• Classical conditioning

• A learning procedure in which associations are
  made b/w a _________ stimulus a ___________
  stimulus.
• A persons or animals old response becomes
  attached to a _________.
• Its a type of _________. This type of learning
  is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral
  tendency that results from ___________.
• Discovered by ______________ accidentally.

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• Pavlovs experiment

• Pavlov began by ringing a ________ then quickly
  placing some meat on a dogs tongue. He used a
  tuning fork b/c it was a neutral stimulus (a
  stimulus that ________________ any part of the
  unconditioned response).
• After only doing this a few times, the dog
  started _______ as soon as it heard the sound,
  even if _______ was placed in its mouth.
• This showed that a neutral stimulus can cause a
  formerly _________ __________.

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• The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is an event that
  elicits a certain _________________ typically w/o
  previous training (the food).
• The unconditioned response (UCR) is an organisms
  natural reaction to a stimulus ______
  (salivating at the food).
• The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a
  ________________ that elicits a given response
  _______________ _______ in which it has been
  paired w/ an unconditioned stimulus (the tuning
  fork).
• The conditioned response (CR) is the
  _______________ to a conditioned stimulus
  (salivating at the tuning fork).

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• General principles of classical conditioning

• Helps animals humans ______________
  _______________ to avoid danger.
• Acquisition of a classically conditioned response
  usually _______________. Pavlov found that
  classical conditioning was most effective when
  the CS was presented ____________ the UCS (tuning
  fork before food).
• Generalization occurs when an animal responds to
  a __________ similar to the original CS w/o prior
  training w/ the 2nd stimulus. Pavlov conditioned
  a dog to salivate at the sight of a circle
  found that it would salivate at the sight of an
  _______ also.
• Discrimination is the ability to respond
  differently to similar but ________________.
  Pavlov was able to teach the dog to only respond
  to the ___________________.
• Generalization discrimination are part of your
  everyday life both ____________.

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• 4. Extinction is the _________________ of a CR
  when the CS is repeatedly presented w/o the UCS.
  Eventually the dog quit salivating after hearing
  the tuning fork when Pavlov repeatedly ________
  it food afterwards.
• __________________ may occur after a rest period
  when the CS causes a CR but is not followed by a
  UCS. However the CR doesnt come back at its
  ____________. After a while Pavlov used the
  tuning fork w/o giving the dog food found
  that the dog did salivate but not as much.
• _________ could be an example.

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• Little Albert

• John B. Watson Rosalie Rayner used conditioning
  on 11 mo. old Albert. They taught him to _______.
  At 1st he happily played w/ the rats, but then
  they would strike a steel bar w/ a hammer when
  rats were nearby. Eventually, Albert began to
  fear the rats even when the __________ _______.
• What was the UCS?
• _____________________ _____________________.
• What was the UCR?
• _____________________.
• What was the CS?
• _____________________.
• What was the CR?
• _____________________.

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• Taste aversions
• Summary of classical conditioning

• If you eat ___________ then become sick, you
  will probably blame the illness on what you ate
  will likely ________ if confronted w/ it again.
• Its a type of _______________.
• It helps animals humans _____ what is going to
  happen. So it can provide information that is
  helpful to ________.
• Can be helpful for __________ or finding food.
• Its an example of a behaviorist theory.
  Behaviorism is the study of trying to understand
  behavior in terms of relationships b/w observable
  _______ observable ________. Behaviorists are
  only concerned w/ what can be _______.

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End Section 1
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• Operant conditioning

• Learning in which a certain action is
  ______________________, resulting in
  corresponding increases or decreases in
  occurrence.
• In other words, its learning from the
  ________________________.
• The term operant comes from the subject operating
  on his/her ______________.
• Unlike classical conditioning it studies how
  _________________ is affected by its
  consequences.
• ____________ is the psychologist most closely
  associated w/ operant conditioning.
• Believed that a persons behavior is influenced
  by his/her ________ of rewards punishments.

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• Skinners experiment on rats

• Skinner trained rats to respond to lights
  sounds in a special enclosure called a
  _______________.
• Rats were placed in the box every time they
  walked towards the bar, food was dropped in the
  cage. Eventually the rat would ____________ in
  that direction when they were hungry. At that
  point, Skinner would only drop food in the box if
  they pressed the bar. The rat learned to press
  the bar _______________________.

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• Reinforcement

• The food that appeared in the cage in Skinners
  rat experiment was a _________. Reinforcement is
  a stimulus or event that the likelihood that a
  __________________.
• Ex training a dog to sit by giving it treats.
• Reinforcers for humans often include social
  approval, ________, extra privileges.
• Positive reinforcement occurs when an
  animal/human is given something _________.
  Something is __________.
• Negative reinforcement occurs when an
  animal/human has something ____________ _______.
  Something is _______________.
• Involves taking something away or preventing
  something from happening.
• Escape conditioning involves training an
  animal/human to ______________ an unpleasant
  stimulus.
• Avoidance conditioning involves training an
  animal/human to prevent an unpleasant stimulus
  ________________________.

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• A primary reinforcer is one that satisfies a
  ______________ such as hunger, thirst, sleep,
  clothing, etc...
• A secondary reinforcer is one that has been
  paired w/ a primary reinforcer through
  classical conditioning has ____________
  reinforcement.
• is the __________ for a secondary reinforcer.

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• Schedules of reinforcement

• ______________ of reinforcement is an important
  factor in operant conditioning.
• Behavior reinforced __________________ is on a
  continuous schedule of reinforcement.
• When positive reinforcement occurs only
  sometimes, its on a ___________________.
• These responses are established slower but
  usually ___________ once learned. 4 types
• 1. Fixed-ratio schedule specific of
  ______________ is required before reinforcement
  can be obtained.
• 2. Variable-ratio schedule - _____________ of
  responses are required before reinforcement can
  be obtained.
• 3. Fixed-interval schedule specific
  ____________ must pass before a response will
  obtain reinforcement.
• 4. Variable-interval schedule ______ amounts of
  time must pass before a response will obtain
  reinforcement.

______ constant, unchanging ______
changes ___ of times an action
occurs ________ passage of time
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• Techniques in operant conditioning

• Shaping - a technique in which the desired
  behavior is ______ by 1st rewarding any act
  similar to that behavior then requiring
  ever-closer approximations to the desired
  behavior before __________ __________.
• Used for teaching _____________.
• Chaining a response chain is a _______
  _____________ that follow one another in sequence
  w/ each reaction producing the signal for the
  next.
• Behaviors are combined into _______________.
  Usually _____ ____ must be mastered before you
  can complete the response patterns.
• Ex. washing your hair, driving, etc

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• Aversive control

• The process of influencing behavior by means of
  _____________________.
• Unlike reinforcement, ___________ involves
  a particular behavior.
• _______________ occurs when an animal/human is
  given something it doesnt want.
• _______________ occurs when an animal/human has
  something it wants removed.
• Punishment can have __________ ____________ like
  rage, aggression, fear. Also, people learn to
  ______ the person delivering the punishment.

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• Contrasting classical operant conditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Always a _______ _______ (UCS) that elicits the desired response. No ___________ ________ learner must 1st respond, then behavior is ___________.
UCS doesnt depend upon learners ___________. _____________ depends upon learners behavior.
Learner ________ to its environment. Learner ________ ________ on its environment.
______________ ______________
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• Social learning

• A process of _________________ by observing
  imitating the behavior of others. There are 2
  types
• 1. Cognitive learning focuses on how
  information is _______, processed, _________.
  It may result from observation or imitation.
• A cognitive map is a _____________ of spatial
  relationships or relationships b/w events.
• Latent learning is the alteration of a behavioral
  tendency that is not demonstrated by an
  ____________, observable change in behavior.
• Learned helplessness is a condition in which
  _________________________ _____________,
  resulting in the belief that the situation is
  uncontrollable.
• - Some believe learned helplessness is a
  major cause of ____________.

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• 2. Modeling is learning by _________ others
  behaviors.
• It involves ___________ imitation.
• There are 3 potential effects
• 1. the chance that well do the
  _________ (we already knew the behaviors,
  but were just learning how to apply
  them).
• 2. Observational learning imitation of a
  ____________.
• 3. _____________ If you see someone
  doing something that you think is ____, but
  nothing happens to them, youll be more
  likely to do the same thing in the future.
• - This can help lessen/cure ________.

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• Behavior modification

• The systematic application of learning principles
  (classical conditioning, operant conditioning,
  social learning) to change peoples __________
  ______________.
• Ways to modify behavior include (but are not
  limited to)
• ___________-assisted instruction.
• Token economies conditioning in which desirable
  behavior is reinforced w/ _________________,
  which can be accumulated exchanged for valued
  rewards.
• _________________
• Set up your own ____________ of rewards
  punishments.
• Best way to start is to _________ of the
  behavior.
• - How often is it occurring?
• - What triggers it?
• Read p.266 Improving Your Study Habits

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Ch 10 Memory and Thought

• Memory

• The storage retrieval of what has been learned
  or ________________.
• The process of memory
• Encoding the transforming of information so the
  _________________ can process it.
• - You use your ________ to encode
  memories.
• 2. Storage the process by which information is
  ____________ over a period of time.
• - Can be stored for a ___________ or
  longer.
• 3. Retrieval occurs when information is brought
  to the mind __________________.
• 3 types
• _________
• Short-term
• ___________

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• Sensory memory

• Very brief memory storage immediately following
  initial ___________________.
• Your senses (ex. sight or hearing) are able to
  hold an input for a ____________________ before
  it disappears.
• Serves 3 functions
• Prevents you from being ____________.
• Gives you time to decide if information is
  ____________ ____________ to.
• Allows for continuity _________ in your world.

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• Short-term memory

• Memory that is ___________________ in capacity
  to about __________ items by the subjects active
  rehearsal.
• Doesnt necessarily involve __________
  ____________.
• Maintenance rehearsal is a system for remembering
  that involves repeating information to oneself
  w/o attempting to _________________ in it.
• Ex. Repeating a telephone
• Duration lasts a bit less than _____ __________
  w/o rehearsal.
• Usually we can only remember 7 unrelated items
  (plus or minus ______).
• Chunking is the process of _________________ to
  make it easier to remember them.

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• The Primary Recency Effect refers to the fact
  that we are better able to recall information
  presented at the ________________________.
• Primacy you had more time to ___________________
  .
• Recency the __________ are still in short-term
  memory.

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• Long-term memory

• The storage of information over _________
  _________________.
• Stored according to ___________ or features.
• The capacity appears to be _________.
• Starts as sensory, goes to short-term, then
  becomes long-term (___________ __________).
• Ways of ___________ long-term memory
• Semantic memory is our knowledge of _________
  (including its words, rules, meanings).
  Episodic memory is our memory of
  ________________.
• OR
• Declarative memory involves both
  ____________________ memory it is knowledge that
  can be called forth consciously used as you
  need it. Procedural memory is memory of _____
  ______ that does not require conscious
  recollection (ex. riding a bike).

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• Retrieving information

• The ability to retrieve memories is based upon
  how we ____________________.
• Psychologists dont yet know how memories are
  organized though.
• There are different methods of retrieval
• ___________
• _______
• __________

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• Recognition

• Is the process of memory retrieval in which a
  person identifies an object, idea, or situation
  as one he/she _______________ ____________________
  _.
• Ex. You might not remember your best friend in
  kindergarten but could _________________ of
  him/her.
• This ability suggests that much ____
  ________________ in memory than one might think.
• Information stored in _______ __________ can be
  more easily retrieved.

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• Recall

• Is the process of memory retrieval in which a
  person reconstructs _____________________________.
  
• Involves more than searching for finding
  information. It involves your knowledge,
  attitudes, ___________.
• These influence what how we _____________.
• Reconstructive processes is the alteration of a
  recalled memory that may be ___________depending
  on an individuals experiences, attitudes, or
  inferences.
• Sometimes events get _________ in memories.
• Its why 2 people might remember the same event
  ____________.
• Confabulation is a memory mistake in which we
  remember information that ____________ in order
  to fill in _______________.
• Our schemas (our ways of mentally organizing
  things) influence how we _________________.
• Few adults have a photographic memory, but about
  __ of children do.
• Youre more likely to remember things if youre
  in the same _____________ /or _____________ that
  you were in when the event occurred.

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• Relearning

• Recognition recall are part of declarative
  memory. But relearning is part of declarative
  ____________ memory.
• Ex. You learned a poem as a child then forget
  it. Years later you can memorize the same poem
  w/ ______ _________ than someone w/ similar
  abilities to yours.

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• Forgetting

• Information that once entered long-term memory
  but is _____________________ is said to be
  forgotten.
• Forgetting may involve decay, interference, or
  repression.
• Decay is the ___________ of memory over time.
• Interference is when a memory is blocked or
  erased by _________________________.
• Proactive interference is when an _______________
  blocks you from remembering related new
  information.
• Retroactive interference is when a _____________
  or new information blocks you from remembering
  information learned earlier.
• Repression occurs when a person
  _____________________________ of an embarrassing
  or frightening experience.

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• Amnesia

• A ______________ that may occur after a blow to
  the head, brain damage, ______, or severe
  psychological stress.
• Infant amnesia is the relative lack of early
  declarative memories. Most memories from
  ________________________________.
• Theories for infant amnesia
• Freud thought it occurred b/c the memories were
  _________ due to the emotional traumas of
  infancy.
• Some think its b/c infants dont yet
  ___________________.
• Others believe its b/c the hippocampus (part of
  the brain which helps w/ long-term memory) hasnt
  ____________.

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• Improving memory

• Repetition, or _____________________ is good for
  short-term memory, but what about long-term?
• Elaborative rehearsal is ___________________ to
  material that is already known.
• Ex. Perhaps as a child you had trouble spelling
  the word together. Then you notice that its
  just the 3 words to get her combined can
  now spell it easily.
• A good way to protect memory is to __________.
  Keep rehearsing even after __________________.
• Avoid studying ___________________ together.
• _____________ your learning.
• Mnemonic devices are techniques for using
  _____________ to memorize retrieve information.
• Involve some ________, but that may be part of
  the reason they work.

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Ch 11 Thinking and Language

• Thinking
• (Try it sometime ?)

• The changing reorganizing of information stored
  in memory to ________________________.
• Enables humans to put together any combination of
  words from memory create sentences
  ______________ __________.
• The process of thinking depends on several
  devices or ____________ images, symbols,
  concepts, prototypes, rules.

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• Units of thought

• An image is a visual, mental representation of an
  _________________.
• Most _________________ of thought.
• Its often not an __________ usually only
  contains highlights of the original.
• A symbol is an ________ unit of thought of a
  sound, object, or design that represents an
  object or quality.
• Most common symbol is _____. Others include
  punctuation, numbers, letters.
• A concept is a label for a class of objects or
  events that have at least 1 attribute in common.
  - ________
• Allow us to ____ large amounts of information.
• A prototype is a representative ______ of a
  concept.
• Ex. When you hear the word car, you think of a
  Toyota Camry.
• A rule is a _____________________ b/w concepts.
• Ex. You cant be in 2 places at once. 224.
  The sun rises in the east sets in the west.

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• Kinds of thinking

• Directed or convergent thinking is a systematic
  ________ attempt to reach a specific goal or
  answer (like the solution to a math problem).
• Deliberate _____________.
• Nondirected or divergent thinking is a _____
  ______ of thoughts w/ no particular plan
  depends more on _________.
• Usually rich w/ _________ fantasies.
• Can provide unexpected insights into a persons
  goals beliefs.
• Metacognition is the awareness of ones own
  cognitive processes (_________________).
• Thinking about your strategy might make you
  re-evaluate it come up w/ a _________________.

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• Problem solving

• One of the main functions of directed thinking is
  to __________________.
• Strategies for solving problems include
• Breaking down a large problem into
  ________________.
• ______________ from your goal to the beginning.
• _______________ options to reach goal.
• We tend to use the ______________ that worked in
  the past.
• An algorithm is a ______________________ for
  solving a problem.
• They can be time-consuming.
• Heuristics are __________________ or rules of
  thumb that simplify a problem.
• Can lead to _____ solutions, but may be bad ones.

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• A mental set is a habitual strategy or _______
  _____________________.
• Can lead to rigidity (an inability to look at
  other _________).
• Functional fixedness is the inability to imagine
  _____________ for familiar objects.
• Less likely to occur w/ ______ problems.
• To overcome this, you must look for new ways of
  solving problems get _______!

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• Creativity

• The capacity to use information /or abilities in
  a _____________________.
• Characteristics of creative thinking
• Flexibility the ability to overcome __________
• Recombination the rearranging of the elements
  of a problem to arrive at an ________________.
• Insight the apparent sudden realization of the
  _______________ _____________.
• Occurs when you step away from a problem for
  awhile but still think about it on an
  ____________________.
• The aha experience.

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• Language

• The expression of ideas through symbols sounds
  that are arranged ___________________.
• Lets us communicate facts _______.
• It allows us to tell each other about the
  __________ _____________.
• Consists of 3 elements - phonemes, morphemes,
  syntax.
• Phonemes are ___________ it may be a single
  letter like t or a combination of letters like
  sh. There are about ____ recognizable sounds,
  but not all sounds are used in any languages.
• Morphemes are the smallest ___________ it may
  be a letter, word, prefix, or suffix.
• Syntax are _______________ that govern how words
  can be combined to form meaningful phrases
  sentences. The rules of language differ in
  ___________________.
• Semantics is the study of _________________.
  You learn to determine a words meaning based in
  part on its context.

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• Language development

• B.F. Skinner believed that children learned
  language through ________________.
• Adults would smile nod at _______ sounds/words.
• Critics argue that children _________ language
  before they speak believe that children learn
  the rules of language before they receive any
  ___________.
• Some psychologists believe children use
  ______________ (observation imitation).
• Noam Chomsky believed that reinforcement social
  learning both played a part in language
  development but theorized that infants inherit a
  _____________ that enables them to learn grammar.

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• How language develops

• There are 4 steps in every language/culture
• 1. _______ (around 4 mo.) infants are learning
  to control their vocal cords to make, change,
  repeat, imitate the sounds of their parents.
• 2. ________________ (around 1st yr.).
• 3. ________________ (around end of 2nd yr.).
• 4. ____________________ (2-3 yrs.).

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• Gender cultural differences in language

• People use language to communicate their
  _________ express their ideas.
• Some believe that our language affects our
  _____________________ of the physical world.
  This is known as linguistic relativity.
• Also some believe that our language affects our
  _________________.
• Some words create _________ _____________ (ex
  congressman, chairman, ballerina, etc).
• We tend to automatically use ___________________
  for certain jobs (ex. teachers tend to be she
  doctors tend to be he).

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Ch 12 Motivation and Emotion

• Motivation

• An internal state that activates behavior
  directs it _______________.
• Causes us to act certain ways at _____________.
• B/c motivation cant be _______________,
  psychologists infer motivation from goal-directed
  behavior.
• In other words, they determine what your
  motivation is by looking at what you are
  __________________.
• There are 4 theories about motivation
• ________
• Drive-reduction
• ________
• Cognitive

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• Instinct Theory

• Its been proposed that humans are motivated by a
  variety of _______.
• Instincts are natural or ________ _________ of an
  organism to make a specific response to certain
  stimuli w/o involving _________.
• Innate tendencies that __________________.
• Occur in almost the same way among all members of
  a _______.
• Human instincts include things like parental
  love, sociability, sympathy, curiosity,
  __________, etc
• A flaw in the instinct theory is that instincts
  dont explain behavior they just ___________.

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• Drive-Reduction Theory

• A need is a biological or psychological
  _______________________________.
• A need produces a _______.
• A drive is an ______________ that can change over
  time orients an individual toward a specific
  goal(s).
• It motivates an organism toward a _____.
• Ex. Hunger drives us to eat fatigue drives us
  to rest.
• Psychologist Clark Hull traced motivation back to
  basic __________ needs. He believed when an
  organism is deprived of something it needs or
  wants, it becomes _____ agitated. It strives
  to maintain homeostasis (the tendency of all
  organisms to maintain a ________________).
• The organism will engage in _______ behavior
  until it does something that relieves the ______.
  It will then ______ that behavior next time that
  drive is felt.

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________ _________
Drive- Reduction Theory
__________
____
________ _______
______
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• Hull believed that all human motives are
  extensions of __________________. Ex. the need
  for social approval could be __________ through
  having a smiling parent fulfill your needs as an
  infant.
• BUT in Harry Harlows experiment, baby monkeys
  would often attach themselves to a cloth
  surrogate monkey w/o food instead of a wood
  wire monkey w/ food, showing the
  _____________________ __________.
• Overlooked that some experiences are just
  _____________________.
• Dont reduce biological drives, but serve as
  __________ or goals.
• Also, we sometimes engage in behavior that
  the __________________ (ex. riding on a roller
  coaster).
• Read p.318 A Balance for Living

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• Incentive Theory

• Stresses the role of the _________ in motivating
  behavior.
• Believe that _____________ are directed toward a
  goal or incentive (an external stimulus,
  reinforcer, or reward that motivates behavior).
• Drives _____ us to reduce needs, but incentives
  _____ us to obtain them.
• Ex. Hunger drives us toward the kitchen, but the
  sandwich is the incentive.
• The _____ the drive, the ______ the incentive
  must be.

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• Cognitive Theory

• Supporters believe that we ____________ _______
  at certain times as a result of extrinsic
  intrinsic motivation.
• Extrinsic motivation refers to engaging in
  activities that either reduce _______________ or
  help us obtain __________________.
• Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in
  activities b/c those activities are
  ________________ or b/c they fulfill our beliefs
  or expectations.
• We often ___________________ b/c of extrinsic
  intrinsic motivations.
• The over-justification effect occurs when people
  are given more ________________ than necessary to
  perform a task their _________ motivation .

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• Biological motives

• These are needs that are _____________ _________
  physical well-being.
• The ______________ is designed so that dramatic
  variations in blood sugar, water, oxygen, salt,
  or essential vitamins lead to changes in behavior
  designed to ________ _____________________.
• Ex. Your body temperature drops you are cold,
  you shiver put on more clothes. If your body
  temperature rises you are hot, you sweat
  remove some clothes.
• Some biological needs include food, water,
  oxygen, sleep, __________________.

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• Hunger

• Your body requires food to grow, to repair
  itself, to ______________.
• The lateral hypothalamus is the part of the
  hypothalamus that produces _______________.
• More active in ______ temperatures.
• The ventromedial hypothalamus is the part of the
  hypothalamus that sends signals that tell you to
  ________________.
• More active in ______ temperatures.
• Your blood sugar (or glucose) refers to the
  amount of _________ available in the blood. If
  these levels drop, you get hungry.
• There are other factors besides the biological
  that influence hunger. These are known as
  ______________ hunger factors.
• Include smells appearance of food, watching
  others eat, ________________, boredom, stress,
  habit, etc

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• Obesity

• More more evidence is showing that a persons
  weight is controlled by ________ __________.
• There is a _________________ that may predispose
  some people to be obese.
• An overweight person is ___ over his/her ideal
  body weight.
• An obese person is ___ over his/her ideal body
  weight.
• Studies have shown that obese people are more
  likely to respond to __________ (for reasons
  other than ________).

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• Social motives

• These are needs that are learned from our
  __________ w/ other people.
• The _________________ concerns the desire to set
  challenging goals to persist in trying to reach
  those goals despite the __________.
• Studies have shown that ___________ are not
  always the most interesting they arent usually
  _________________. They are also less likely to
  value intimacy in a relationship. They often
  prefer to associate w/ experts who will help them
  achieve, instead of w/ more ___________.

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• Some people are motivated not to achieve, but b/c
  they have a ________________.
• These people tend to _____________ tasks prefer
  easy ones that they are confident they can
  _____________.
• They often find _________ to explain their poor
  performances to maintain a _______________.
  However, this prevents them from taking
  _____________ for their own actions.
• Some people ___________ b/c it may mean that they
  are a _______ in some other way. For ex, a woman
  may feel as if she is too successful in a
  traditionally male-dominated profession, than she
  is a failure as a woman.

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• Maslows hierarchy of needs

• Abraham Maslow created an order of needs that he
  believed _______________.
• He proposed that after we satisfy the needs at
  the bottom of the triangle, we ___________ to the
  next level, but if one of our lower needs ceases
  to be satisfied, we may ____________ the
  hierarchy.
• Fundamental needs are biological drives that must
  be satisfied to ___________.
• Psychological needs are the urge to belong, to
  give receive love, to acquire _________.
• Like fundamental needs, these can
  only be filled by an ___________.
• Self-actualization needs are the pursuit of
  knowledge beauty or whatever else is required
  for the realization of ones ____________________.
  
• Not everyone reaches the ______________.
• Some debate his belief that there is an
  ___________ ________.

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• Emotions

• Are a set of _____________ to stimuli involving
  subjective feelings, physiological arousal,
  _____________________.
• Provoked by real or _______________ or events
  that have high significance to the individual.
• They help us ____________ communicate what is
  going on inside of us.
• Result from 4 occurrences
• You must interpret some ___________.
• You have a subjective ____________.
• You experience _____________ responses.
• You display an _____________________.
• All emotions have 3 parts
• ________ arousal of the person/how the body
  responds to the emotion.
• ________ outward expression of emotion.
• _______ how we think about or interpret a
  situation.

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• Emotional intelligence is the ability to
  perceive, imagine, understand emotions to use
  that information in _________ _________.
• It helps us gauge the situation determine an
  _______________.
• Studies have shown that certain basic facial
  expressions are innate part of our
  ___________________.
• Emotions are ___________, but the expression of
  them is _____ by learning how to express them.
  We are taught how when it is __________ to
  display certain emotions.

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• Theories of emotions

• We associate feelings w/ a sudden or
  in energy, muscle tension relaxation,
  sensations in the _____________________.
• Physiological theorists like William James argue
  that we dont feel emotions b/c of a stimulus,
  but that we feel emotions b/c of the ________
  __________________ to a stimulus.
• So ________ dont cause bodily changes, instead,
  bodily changes cause _________.
• Similarly, the Facial Feedback Theory states that
  our conscious experience of emotion results from
  the ________ _______ we receive from the _______
  in our faces.
• Critics argue that bodily reactions
  _______________, but dont cause them.

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• Cognitivists argue that ______________ thinking
  work together to produce emotions.
• What you feel depends on how you
  _______________________.
• Perception arousal interact to create
  ____________.
• When people cant explain their physical
  reactions, they take cues from their
  ____________.
• Researchers believe that _______ may play an
  important role in our ______ as humans in our
  ability to achieve goals b/c they spur us into
  _________.
• Emotions physical changes are _________.

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