PO377 Ethnic Conflict and Political Violence

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PO377 Ethnic Conflict and Political Violence

• Week 5 Rwanda

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Lecture Outline

• Overview
• History of Rwanda
• Contested Views on Ethnicity in Rwanda Ancient
  Hatred or Legacy of Colonialism?
• 3 schools of thought
• Ranked vs. Unranked Ethnic Systems
• Ranked ethnic systems
• Unranked ethnic systems
• 4 directions in which subordinate groups can try
  to move a ranked system
• Civil War and Peace Accords
• Negotiations and aid conditionality
• Arusha Accords
• Genocide
• Explaining Genocide?
• Post-Genocide
• Conclusions

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Pop Quiz

• I think I understand why genocide occurred in
  Rwanda
• Yes.
• No.

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Overview

• Population 10.9 million (2011).
• Two thirds live below the poverty line (in 1994
  figure was 86).
• 1994 genocide 800,000-1,000,000 people killed
  (mostly Tutsi). 250,000-500,000 women and girls
  raped.
• Killing rate 5 times that of the Nazis.
• Genocide was carefully planned.
• History of Rwanda is deeply contested.

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History of Rwanda

• Pre-colonial oral tradition. Myth of Gatwa,
  Gahutu and Gatutsi. Ruled by Tutsi monarchy at
  European contact but power structures and social
  relations complicated. Clan system which largely
  cut across Tutsi-Hutu-Twa identities.
• 1885 Berlin Conference Rwanda given to Germany
  as part of German East Africa (Ruanda-Urundi).
• Pop. spoke same language (Kinyarwanda), shared
  same religion (Kubandwa then Christianity), told
  same myths and ancestral stories, yet three
  groups. Twa (1) pygmy hunter-gatherers. Hutu
  (majority) peasant farmers resembled
  neighbours, classed by Europeans as Bantu.
  Tutsi (ruling class) cattle-herders taller and
  thinner, lighter skinned.

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History of Rwanda (2)

• European racial ideas Tutsi as superior to Hutu
  and Twa, as quasi-Caucasian and as descendants of
  conquering race from Ethiopia or Egypt (ref.
  explorer John Hanning Speke). Tutsis as
  Hamites descendants of Ham, Noahs son (Book
  of Genesis). (See Prunier 1997 Destexhe 1995.)
• European contact during time of change towards
  greater centralisation, greater dominance by
  central Tutsi monarchy and increase in Tutsi
  chiefly powers.
• Belgian rule succeeded German 1916 moves towards
  more direct colonial rule and further
  consolidation of Tutsi power at expense of Hutu.
  Forced labour, beatings.

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History of Rwanda (3)

• 1933 Belgian census in Rwanda and implementation
  of ethnic identity cards (14-15 classed as
  Tutsi).
• 1945 UN formed Trusteeship Council to oversee
  3rd world decolonisation. Rwanda is made a
  trusteeship.
• UN Trusteeship Council critical of Belgian rule
  1950s moves towards democracy. Formation of
  political parties, established on ethnic lines
  Parmehutu party (Parti du Mouvement de
  lEmancipation Hutu) opposition party mainly
  Tutsi, Union National Rwandaise (UNAR).

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History of Rwanda (4)

• 1957 Hutu manifesto calls for emancipation and
  majority rule, receiving support from Belgium and
  the UN etc.
• 1959 inter-ethnic political violence after
  suspicious death of Tutsi king. Hutu revolution,
  exile of 150,000-200,000 Tutsi, abolition of
  monarchy republic established.
• 1962 Rwanda and Burundi become independent as
  separate states.
• 1963, 1967, 1973 slaughters of Tutsi. Hutu rule
  until 1990 civil war.

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Contested Views on Ethnicity

• 3 schools of thought
• Primordialists distinct ethnic groups in Rwanda
  for 100s of years (colonial administrators and
  missionaries some anthropologists used as part
  rationale for genocide).
• Hutu and Tutsi are one ethnic group as they share
  language, religion and culture Hutu and Tutsi
  were purely caste/class groupings. Existing
  divisions are entirely a colonial legacy.
• In between such views pre-colonial Tutsi
  monarchy created differences and distinct
  identities but these were more fluid and about
  wealth/class, not ethnicity colonial era and
  racial agendas entrenched Hutu and Tutsi labels
  as ethnic/racial groups.
• (Uvin 1997 is useful on these debates.)

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Ranked vs. Unranked Ethnic Systems

• Ranked ethnic systems
• Ethnic groups in hierarchical, ranked
  relationship. Social class and ethnicity
  coincide society stratified along ethnic lines.
  One ethnic group clearly superordinate over a
  subordinate group in political, economic and
  social status simultaneously. Ethnic groups often
  fill distinct occupational groups.
• Examples Rwanda and Burundi Jamaica apartheid
  South Africa any system of slavery.

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Ranked vs. Unranked Ethnic Systems (2)

• Unranked ethnic systems
• Ethnic groups are parallel, unranked. Social
  class and ethnicity dont fully coincide ethnic
  groups are cross-class so each is internally
  stratified. Each parallel group is potentially a
  whole society, covering range of occupations and
  statuses.
• Examples Sri Lanka former Yugoslavia Northern
  Ireland.
• Neither type of system is completely pure and
  both are subject to change.

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Ranked vs. Unranked Ethnic Systems (3)

• 4 directions in which subordinate groups can try
  to move a ranked system
• Subordinate groups try to displace superordinate
  groups (e.g. Rwanda 1959).
• Subordinate groups aim to abolish ethnic
  divisions altogether (e.g. United States).
• Subordinate groups try to raise their position in
  ethnic hierarchy without denying legitimacy of
  that hierarchy (e.g. caste changes in India are
  similar).
• Subordinate groups try to move the system from
  ranked to unranked (e.g. Rwanda 1990 RPF war).
• (On ranked and unranked ethnic systems see chpt.
  1 of Horowitz 2000.)

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Civil War and Peace Accords

• 1980s Museveni gets Ugandan presidency through
  insurgency aided by Tutsi immigrants backs Tutsi
  efforts to overthrow Hutu-led Rwandan government.
• 1989 collapse of international coffee market
  increases economic hardship, followed by
  structural adjustment programme 1990-94.
• 1990-91 exiled Tutsi (Rwandan Patriotic Front)
  war against Rwandan govt. RPF includes moderate
  Hutu and claims it wants multi-ethnic democracy.
• 1991 cease-fire between Rwandan govt and RPF
  after strong international pressure. Govt
  negotiates with RPF and other opposition leaders.

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Civil War and Peace Accords (2)

• Negotiations and aid conditionality
• 1992 talks in Arusha (Tanzania) in response to
  pressure from USA, Belgium, and Organization of
  African Unity (OAU).
• US State Department continued aid dependent upon
  progress towards multi-party coalition
  government.
• Negotiations led to Aug. 1993 Arusha Accords.
  Organized by OAU delegations from African
  states observers/monitors from France, Belgium,
  Germany, US, Britain, Canada, Netherlands, EU.

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Civil War and Peace Accords (3)

• Arusha Accords
• Democratic power-sharing governance.
• RPF and Rwandan armed forces to integrate.
• Intl. peacekeeping force (UN Assistance Mission
  in Rwanda) to be deployed and French soldiers to
  withdraw.
• Refugees to be allowed home.
• Hutu regime not genuinely committed to cease-fire
  or accords 1991-1994 periodic massacres. Accords
  never instituted. Civilian militias are armed and
  trained by the MRND and CDR.
• Many thought Accords were best settlement that
  could be achieved problem was Habyarimanas
  regime not committed. Others say Accords backed
  hardliners into a corner and created extremist
  reaction (see Khadiagala 2002, week 19 reading
  list).

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Genocide

• Both the mediators and the parties to the
  Arusha Agreement staked its implementation almost
  exclusively on international actors who were
  unwilling and unprepared to expend the resources
  required to meet its provisions (Khadiagala
  2002, p. 463).
• Implementation of Arusha Accords delayed
  genocide of Tutsis began April 1994. UNAMIR
  peacekeepers withdrew.
• Genocide ended July 1994 through RPF military
  victory. RPF governing in coalition with other
  political parties.

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Genocide (2)

• Systematic, murderous anti-Tutsi propaganda
  campaign began well before 1994.
• Radio station Radio Télévision Libre des Mille
  Collines (RTLM) disseminated misinformation and
  propaganda. (Some staff later convicted by ICTR
  of inciting genocide.)
• 6 April 1994 Hutu presidents of Rwanda and
  Burundi were killed when their plane was shot
  down by a rocket (still the subject of
  controversy).

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Genocide (3)

• Interim govt blamed plane crash on RPF and
  Belgian UNAMIR troops Rwandan army killed 10
  Belgians Belgium withdrew troops then UN
  withdrew almost all peacekeepers.
• UN decided to send expanded peacekeeping force
  (UNAMIR II) but didnt arrive until Aug (already
  over). France intervened unilaterally armed and
  supported Hutu elite.
• Apr.-Jul. 1994 est. 800,000-1,000,000 Rwandans
  killed majority Tutsi but also many moderate
  Hutu. Brutal deaths most violence committed by
  civilian militia groups (interahamwe) armed with
  machetes and sharpened wooden and metal objects.

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Explaining Genocide?

• There is no consensus in the literature on
  exactly why genocide occurred in Rwanda and at
  the time it did so. Different scholars place
  different weights on various factors and how they
  interact
• racist narratives about ethnicity (Uvin 1997
  Taylor 1999 Prunier 1997 Destexhe 1995 Mamdani
  2002)
• colonial changes to the nature of the state and
  traditional social and economic structures
  (Prunier 1997 Destexhe 1995 Mamdani 2002
  Hintjens 1999)
• socio-political contestation between the
  northwest and the rest of Rwanda intra-Hutu
  competition (Uvin 1997 Hintjens 1999)
• economic crisis, structural adjustment programme,
  and scarcity of land (Storey 1999 Uvin 1997
  African Rights 1995a Jones 2002)

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Explaining Genocide? (2)

• fear, insecurity and displacement generated by
  the civil war (Reyntjens 1996)
• political manipulation by elites trying to hold
  onto power in the face of crisis and internal and
  external pressure to democratize (Uvin 1997
  Hintjens 1999 Prunier 1997 Reyntjens 1996)
• deliberate media propaganda (appears in all
  accounts)
• a social tradition of extreme conformity
  (Reyntjens 1996 Hintjens 1999)
• the failure of the international community in
  various forms structural adjustment, coercion
  via aid conditionality, involvement of particular
  individual states, role of NGOs, withdrawal of
  peacekeepers etc. (Clapham 1998 Prunier 1997
  Storey 1997 Gourevitch 1999 Melvern 2000
  Klinghoffer 1998).

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Pop Quiz

• I believe that ethnic tensions in Rwanda have
• Largely been resolved since the end to the
  genocide, with the government of national
  unity.
• Been repressed but not overcome.
• Been transferred to neighbouring states.

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Post-Genocide

• By 19 July 1994 RPF had control of most of Rwanda
  and installed themselves as govt of national
  unity, in coalition with 4 other political
  parties provided for in the Arusha Accords
  (exception of MRND). New President, PM and many
  cabinet members were Hutu but the current govt is
  more Tutsi-dominated.
• Current President, Paul Kagame, is a Tutsi who
  was military commander of the RPF when it ended
  the genocide.
• When RPF took power up to 2,000,000 Hutu fled to
  refugee camps in neighbouring states, mainly
  Zaire. From camps Hutu exiles launched attacks
  on Rwanda Rwandan govt invaded Zaire (now DR
  Congo) to clear out Hutu refugee camps. Various
  types of Rwandan military involvement in DRC
  since then, including mass slaughter of Hutus.

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Post-Genocide (2)

• Today Rwanda is fairly stable but more like
  tenuous stalemate than genuine peace. Weakly
  democratic and really pretty authoritarian.
  Repression of political opposition and media.
  Focus on development.
• Govt has arguably failed to move towards genuine
  national reconciliation. Approach seems largely
  to be to try and erase the notion of ethnic
  difference, rather than to acknowledge and value
  all what do you think about this approach to
  ethnic conflict?

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Conclusions

• Different group identities existed in Rwanda
  prior to colonial contact but the nature of these
  identities/divisions remains hotly debated.
• Colonial notions of race and colonial political
  administration had huge and negative impact on
  constructions of ethnic identity in Rwanda.
• Arusha Accords were imposed upon Hutu elite and
  strongly resisted did this contribute to
  causing the genocide?
• The impact of the economic situation seems to
  have been very significant but fundamentally it
  was the interaction of this with political power
  struggles which led to state incitement to
  genocide.