Foundations of Modern Europe

1
Foundations of Modern Europe

• The Crusades

2
The Middle ages (500-1460)

• The Middle Ages spans the end of the Roman Empire
  to the beginning of the Age of Discoveries
• It is divided into 3 stages from Early, High and
  Late Medieval periods
• Life in Europe was harsh with periods of
  starvation, barbarian invasions, the Black plague
  and frequent wars
• Travel was very dangerous during this time
  period, nevertheless, people traveled as far as
  China such as Marco Polos travels
• Trade was the main reason for this travel,
  especially silk and spices from China that were
  transported through central Asia to the markets
  in the west
• in Africa, caravans trudged across the Sahara,
  while in the Mediterranean Sea, Venetian ships
  sailed to different trading posts
• During the High period Charles Martel,
  Charlemagne, attempted to unify Europe with the
  creation of the Holy Roman Empire as a way of
  pacifying warring kings and princes and
  nullifying nationalist tendencies
• at this time, most of Europe was made up of small
  kingdoms, principalities and city states that
  made alliances with each other and then broke them

3
The Middle ages (500-1460)

• During this period Christian knights of Europe
  set out on crusades to free the Holy Land from
  infidels as Christians called the Muslims who
  controlled Palestine
• Europeans were very superstitious and the Church
  was the center of politics, education and society
• By the Late medieval period much had changed as a
  result of the Crusades and the Renaissance
• nationalism- pride in ones county or the sense
  of belonging to a particular country was slowly
  growing but loyalty to your King was ordered by
  God
• many wars were undertaken in the name of religion
  as Christians dealt with Luthers Reformation
• Many people had become disillusioned with the
  Vaticans corruption they looked to Classical
  thought and a shifted from focusing on God to
  focusing on humankind
• By far the most important invention of the Middle
  ages came at its close Johannes Gutenberg
  Printing Press -- suddenly learning came within
  the reach of everyone who could read

4
Holy War

• In the 11th Century World much of the Middle East
  and the spice routes are off limits to
  Christians. Christians are, however, allowed to
  due pilgrimages to Palestine (Jerusalem).
• Islams spread has for a while been stopped by
  the early 10th Century. A period of in-fighting
  between Muslims or Moors Umayyad Caliphate and
  the Almoravids period begins.
• The Reconquista on the Iberian Peninsula begins
  in earnest at this time with El-Cid and other
  Spanish and Portuguese kings trying to retake the
  Peninsula. In 1065 the Pope recognizes this as
  the first Holy War or Crusade and gives his
  official blessing for a Holy War.
• The Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium is now
  under invasion from the Seljuk Turks and suffers
  major defeats. The Byzantium Emperor asks the
  Pope for help. These new Muslim rulers massacre
  Christian pilgrims in Palestine.
• In 1095, Pope Urban II called on Christian
  leaders to free the Holy Land from the infidels
  in what becomes known as the First Crusade.
• the First Crusade was a disorganized combination
  of two groups the peoples army led by 2 well
  meaning men named Peter the Hermit and Walter the
  Penniless the other led by rich aristocratic
  knights.

5
Holy War

• Crusader armies raped, pillaged and plundered
  their way down to Palestine. Even resorting to
  cannibalism (Maarat al-Numan) and the massacre
  of Jerusalem.
• at first the Seljuk Turks left the kingdom alone,
  but 8 more Crusades followed. The Third Crusade
  is led by Richard the Lion Hearted of England and
  Salah al-Din Yusuf will retake Jerusalem by 1187.
• By 1295, the Christians had been thrown out of
  all the Middle East.
• many of the Crusaders were more interested in
  personal gain than religion and they quarreled
  among themselves
• by the 14th Century, Europe had lost interest in
  the Crusades although there were several more
  attempts to organize Crusades, they all failed

6
Results of the Crusades

• For a while Europeans get a taste of the good
  life Spices, medicines, knowledge.
• Two new and powerful military forces appears in
  Europe as the Knights Templar and the Knights
  Hospitaller.
• The seeds of the European Renaissance are sown as
  Muslim libraries in Iberia are translated and
  lost knowledge is regained.
• The Muslims see the Crusades as a European
  invasion and have their own Jihad to expel the
  infidels.

7
Results of the Crusades

• New knowledge and desire for spices lead Portugal
  to begin a new quasi Crusade against the Muslims
  as they set sail for the East and begin the Age
  of Discoveries.
• Spain, eager to get in on the spice trade,
  contracts Christopher Columbus in 1492 to
  discover a western trade route to India. As a
  result the Americas are discovered.
• This age of discoveries brings with it the age of
  colonialism which will last until the 1970s.

8
The Renaissance(1350-1550)

• the French term Renaissance means rebirth and
  it applied to this period because of the
  acquiring of knowledge based on ancient
  Greco-Roman thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle and
  Cicero and a renewed interest in Greco-Roman
  culture
• this period marks the start of modern history
• Europeans started to emerge form the narrow
  confines of the Middle Ages to travel beyond
  their own continent Age of Discoveries
• this time period provided profound changes in
  attitudes and ideas and the resulting artistic
  and intellectual achievements
• education, art, science and architecture were all
  affected as people began to question what they
  were told

9
The Renaissance(1350-1550)

• In all areas there began to be a shift from God
  to man and a desire for knowledge known as
  Humanism
• Architecture was obsessed with symmetry,
  proportion and geometry as well as aesthetics
• The Printing Press is invented by Johannes
  Guttenberg helping people to get books like never
  before
• It is during the renaissance that seeds of the
  Scientific Revolution are laid
• largely unknown to most Europeans at the start of
  this period, other civilizations (Islam, India
  and China) were flourishing

10
Why Italy?

• Geography and the Church were the two biggest
  reasons for Italy being the center of the
  Renaissance.
• Situated between western Europe and Byzantium and
  lying along the Mediterranean coasts, it
  established a great trading network.
• The wealth of these city states allowed for the
  development of a middle class with wealthy
  merchants replacing nobility.
• Rome and the Papal States were the center of
  learning and life and many of the Muslim texts
  from the Reconquista were translated here in
  monasteries and other church centres.

11
Why Italy?

• As Byzantium was besieged by the Turks more Greek
  and Byzantium refugees settled in Italy bringing
  knowledge with them as well
• Merchants had access to this knowledge and began
  to move away from focusing on God to focusing on
  man or Humanism
• Merchants became the main driving force behind
  the Renaissance as they paid for art and
  architecture in an effort to enjoy life.

12
Renaissance Art

• Francesco Petrarca (1341) founder of Humanism
  believed that true eloquence and ethical wisdom
  could be found by looking to the ancients like
  Virgil and Cicero
• Florence and the Medici family symbolize the
  Renaissance Italy (1400)
• Cosimo Medici made Florence his banking empire
  capital and spent over 600,000 gold florins on
  arts, education and architecture in his lifetime
• In keeping with Humanism artists portrayed
  subjects in lifelike human form and realistic
  positions. They used different techniques to
  create a 3-D perception.
• Some of the earliest masters were Brunelleschi
  and Donatello who created the first sculpture of
  David which Michelangelo would later immortalize
  with his own.

13
Renaissance Art

• The Palazzo de Medici is one of the finest
  architectural pieces of the Renaissance but
  Florence is itself a giant renaissance
  architecture museum.
• The Renaissance style places emphasis on
  symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity
  of parts as they are demonstrated in the
  architecture of classical antiquity and in
  particular ancient Roman architecture, of which
  many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of
  columns, pilasters and lintels, as well as the
  use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes
  and niches replaced the more complex proportional
  systems and irregular profiles of medieval
  buildings.

14
Renaissance

• REBIRTH
• Focus is on learning knowledge from the ancients
  as the best source for they had it all figured
  out.
• This means moving away from the church and the
  bible as the source of all truth.
• Translations of works from Muslims and old
  archives in the monasteries reveal the ancient
  works and are heavy in demand.
• HUMANISM
• A natural transition begins where man becomes the
  center of interest as opposed to being the
  original sin in Gods creation (Adam and Eve).
  This move is justified by the idea from the bible
  that Man is Gods creation and image therefore
  the greatest of all his creations. Therefore, it
  is right to worship man and all his abilities
  Humanism is born.
•  
• This fascination with man, nature and the
  ancients will eventually lead to the Scientific
  Revolution and the age of Enlightenment.
•  

15
Renaissance Philosophy

• Pillars of the Renaissance
•  
• Francesco Petrarca (1304 -1374)
• Considered the father of the Renaissance and
  founder of Humanism.
• Writer of poetry and love letters
• Researches and writes about the ancient
  philosophers like Cicero
• He joins the Priesthood when his parents die and
  he has no way to make a living.
• He studies law and later philosophy and the
  ancients.
• He quits the priesthood when he falls in love
  with a woman called Laura but she is married
  and they cannot be together. Many of his poems
  and letters are about his love for her.
• Loses most of his family to the plague son,
  grandson, Laura, friends, etc.
• His writings are read by everyone whos anyone
  and attracts wealthy and aristocratic attention.
• His writings influence many future writers such
  as Shakespeare.
• He is also very influential in the development of
  Italian as a national language.
• He emphasizes that since man is Gods creation
  then anything man can create or think up is great
  too. Man should be studied and celebrated and he
  sees the ancient writers as having already done
  much of this.
• For the rich men of the time it relieved them
  from a dilemma of enjoying life and acquiring
  wealth since Petrarca pointed out that man should
  try to achieve as much as possible in everything
  as part of his spirituality.

16
Renaissance Art

• Ciceros Appeal
• His writings concerned the defense, and if
  possible the improvement, of the Roman Republic.
• He argued that his contemporary politicians were
  corrupt as opposed to the noble Roman founders .
  This loss of virtue was, he believed, the cause
  of the Republics difficulties.
• Rome would improve only if the Roman elite chose
  to improve their characters and place commitments
  to individual virtue and social stability ahead
  of their desires for fame, wealth, and power.
• The elite then would lead by example and force
  the rest of society to do the same.
• Cicero spent a lot of time trying to convince
  Roman society that philosophy was a worthwhile
  art.
• Greek philosophy was ahead of all others so
  Cicero translated many Greek works into Latin.
• Without this we would not have knowledge of many
  of the Greek writings.
• Inventing Latin words where none seemed suitable
  for Greek concepts (including the Latin words
  which give us the English words morals, property,
  individual, science, image, and appetite).

17
Renaissance Philosophy

• Cicero and Hummanism
• Cicero discussed two Greek schools of
  philosophical thought Stoicism and Academy or
  Academic Skeptics
• Stoicism held that the gods existed and loved
  human beings.
• Both during and after a persons life, the gods
  rewarded or punished human beings according to
  their conduct in life.
• The gods had also provided human beings with the
  gift of reason and that the best, most virtuous,
  and most divine life was one lived according to
  reason, not according to the search for pleasure.
  
• This did not mean that humans had to shun
  pleasure, only that it must be enjoyed in the
  right way. For example, it was fine to enjoy sex,
  but not with another mans wife. It was fine to
  enjoy wine, but not to the point of shameful
  drunkenness.
• Finally, the Stoics believed that human beings
  were all meant to follow natural law, which
  arises from reason. The natural law is also the
  source of all properly made human laws and
  communities
• Humans therefore have an obligation to take part
  in politics (so far as is possible) in order to
  discharge those duties.
• Cicero always considered himself to be an
  Academic Skeptic
• a belief that human beings cannot be certain in
  their knowledge about the world so no philosophy
  can be said to be true.
• One must be able to argue all sides of an
  argument or issue to understand and accept any
  belief.
• The Academic Skeptics mostly criticized
  everything and did not offer solutions Cicero,
  though, does offer solutions.
• The idea that one must question everything and
  cannot be sure of anything is a challenge to the
  Churchs hold on society. It contradicts the
  notion of faith which requires no questioning
  just believing.
•  
• Ciceros Death
•  
• Ciceros life in politics was his ultimate demise
  and he and his family were executed on Marc
  Antonys orders and his head and hands were
  nailed to the Senate doors as a warning to other
  dissenters.
•  
•  

18
Renaissance Art

• Leonardo Da Vinci
• Da Vinci is the symbol of the Renaissance Man
• Inventor, painter, sculptor, scientist, writer,
  architect, engineer and more
• Born in the Renaissance period (1452 1519)
• Illegitimate son of Piero Da Vinci near Florence
• Worked most of his life in Italy and some in
  France
• Mostly in Florence, Milan and Rome
• Learned under earlier Master Andrea del
  Verrocchio of the Renaissance to become the
  greatest of them all
• Because he did not learn Latin well he had to
  rely on his senses to develop his ideas
• Artists relied on the patronage of wealthy
  aristocracy or merchants who paid for their work
• Notorious for not keeping to his contracts or
  deadlines he often was not liked during his time
• Da Vinci seemed to play down his painting and
  sculpting when trying to get work often appealing
  to princes and kings to hire him for his
  engineering skills
• Few hired him for anything but artistry though
  today we recognize his genius for his designs for
  tanks, planes and other machines
• His famous art work includes the Mona Lisa, the
  Last Supper, the Vitruvius man (man in the
  circle)
• Depending on the politics he either worked for
  one city state or another
• His work exemplifies Humanism as it centerpiece
  is man 3D, proportional and glorifying the human
  body
• His study into anatomy and engineering broke new
  ground in areas that were traditionally left to
  superstition and religion and threatened him with
  heresy
• Leonardo was reputed to be a vegetarian and
  perhaps even a Jain
•  

19
Renaissance Art
20
Renaissance Politics

• Lorenzo de Medici
• Grandson of Cosimo de Medici, he and his family
  ran a banking business that made them rulers of
  Florence although Florence was technically a
  republic
• The Medici wealth and banking interests had them
  embroiled in the politics of Italy and much of
  Europe including England and France
• The Medici family had always invested heavily in
  the arts and knowledge they were enthusiasts of
  the Renaissance and Humanist movements since they
  had wealth and wanted to enjoy it
• Lorenzo himself was a poet, philosopher and
  founded the worlds first academy of art
• Lorenzo hired Leonardo and had him in Florence
  for a some time until he became embroiled in the
  Pazzi Conspiracy Lorenzo and his brother were
  assaulted in the historic church the Duomo but
  Lorenzo survived with a neck wound.
• Retribution was swift and thorough including the
  execution of Archbishop Salviati for his role in
  the conspiracy and the Pazzi family was stripped
  of all possessions and many members executed all
  across Europe
• Pope Sixtus IV was infuriated although he was
  behind it too. He brought the King of Naples
  into a war with Florence that almost bankrupted
  the Medici. Lorenzo was excommunicated by the
  Pope.
• Leonardo possibly flees the war or leaves due to
  the hardships going on in Florence and ends up
  working for the Duke of Milan perhaps sent to
  Sforza as a gift
• Sixtus IV had put a request for all the best
  artists to come to Rome to work on the Chapel and
  other works but Leonardo was not on the list
  perhaps because he was so closely affiliated with
  the Medici even though Lorenzo did not have close
  ties to him

21
The Protestant Reformation

• By the early 1500s Europe had changed so much
  Charlemagne wouldnt have recognized it
• Vatican corruption and scandals, the Babylonian
  Captivity (Avignon) and the Great Schism (Urban
  VI the true pope and Clement VII as an anti-Pope)
• Resentment of churchs wealth, power and control
  over everyday life
• Challenges to theology from science such as
  Copernicus and Galileo
• the movement to change the church was called the
  Reformation and led by Martin Luther
• it led to a split in Christianity between
  Catholics and Protestants that led to religious
  wars
• King Henry VIII uses Protestantism to create the
  Anglican Church of England and break from the
  Vatican
• The Church responds to reformation with the
  Inquisition and persecutes heretics
• Northern Europe becomes largely protestant while
  southern Europe remains Catholic
• Religion is carried to the new World with more
  zeal by Conquistadores from Portugal and Spain
• Religious wars take a toll and eventually lead to
  the notion of separation of Church and state

22

• It began in Germany when a priest called Martin
  Luther (1483-1546) nailed a list of 95 Theses to
  the church door at Wittenberg
• it gave details of all he thought was wrong with
  the Church
• most of all, Luther hated the Churchs sale of
  indulgences- these certificates forgave people
  of their sins, and could be bought from the
  church for money
• Luther also believed that man was saved by faith
  alone and not by good works or by the sale of
  indulgences and that there were only two
  sacraments baptism and the Eucharist
• he wanted faith to be based on the scriptures in
  the Bible and not on religious ceremonies he
  also believed that Bible readings were important
  and that services should be in the local
  language, NOT in Latin
• Luther hoped his list would lead to debate in the
  church, but instead he was accused of heresy
  (going against church beliefs)
• he refused to take back his words and was
  excommunicated from the Catholic Church in 1521
• however, by this time Luther had gained support
  in Northern Germany and Switzerland

23

• he set up his own church and his followers were
  called Lutherans
• The Pope, Clement VII, besides excommunication of
  those involved, relied on Charles V of Spain, the
  Holy Roman Emperor and his troops, to actively
  put down the heretics in the German states thus
  driving the German princes away from Rome and
  determined to protect themselves and the
  Lutherans
• Further problems arose when Clement got involved
  between the Spanish and French courts in their
  battles over some of the Italian states.
• The Emperor had invested much in Italy and when
  Clement flipped allegiances like the wind he
  ordered his troops to sack Rome (1527) and
  imprison the Pope
• after 1529, Lutherans were renamed Protestants
  when they protested against attempts to limit
  their teachingsCalvinism and Puritanism
• a man named Ulrich Zwingli led the Reformation
  in Switzerland which divided the country along
  religious lines
• his views were more extreme than Luthers and in
  1524 he banned Catholic mass in Zurich
• This led to a civil war and the Second Battle of
  Kappel in which Zwingli was killed
• Another man that was very influential in this
  movement was John Calvin (1509-1564) he was born
  in France and studied law and theology before
  becoming involved in the Reformation
• he believed in predestination (that God had
  already ordained the future) and that only people
  chosen by God, the Elect, would be saved

24
John Calvin

• Jean Cauvin or John Calvin (1509-1564) studied
  at first to be a priest in the Catholic Church in
  France.
• Later he turned to being a lawyer and meeting
  many humanist/reformers in his studies.
• In the 1530s Calvin began writing and preaching
  against the Church and promoting Protestant
  ideals.
• He eventually had to flee and ended up in
  Switzerland where he took over the Protestant
  sects.
• He was greatly influenced by Zwinglis work and
  would go even further in his own reforms.
• He became known as Defender of the Faith after
  he ordered the burning of Michael Servetus as a
  heretic for denying the Holy Trinity.
• His beliefs will end up being the foundation of
  American society and has left its mark even today
• Many of the Pilgrims were Calvinists

25
Calvins beliefs

• he believed in predestination (that God had
  already ordained the future) and that only people
  chosen by God, the Elect, would be saved
• saints were living, breathing human beings who
  had been elected by god to be saved
• The Calvinist churches could elect who would be
  members and all those in the church were
  obviously saints who would be saved
• Calvinist churches were free to search out for
  their members and the members could be part of
  whichever church they wanted
• Luthers concept of a priesthood of believers
  presented a problem in how to determine leaders
  when everyone is equal
• Calvins churches solved this by having
  Voluntary Association. People could pick their
  church freely but the church had to agree to
  accept them in
• This is an early version of what will become
  known as the SOCIAL CONTRACT
• He believed that the bible had to be taken
  literally and in the Holy Trinity
• He developed a moral code for all that revolved
  around

26
Results of the Reformation

• Civil wars and foreign wars break out across
  Europe
• Persecutions follow whereby Catholics and
  Protestants are forced to convert or die
• England brutally suppresses Catholicism to
  replace it with Anglicanism
• The Spanish Netherlands revolts and begins a 40
  year civil war of extreme brutality and ends in
  an independent United Provinces of the
  Netherlands (Holland)
• The 30 years war begins in the German states an
  extremely brutal war which will involve most of
  Europe
• The Treaty of Westphalia will result in the
  principle of the separation of Church and State
• Protestants will split into Anglicans, Lutherans,
  Calvinists and Puritans
• Religious differences and intolerances will be
  brought to the Americas and be a source of
  conflict

27
Religious Wars

• French Religious Wars
• The Protestant Reformation sparked several
  serious wars as both people and political leaders
  either accepted or rejected these ideas
• "Une foi, un loi, un roi," (one faith, one law,
  one king) was Frances traditional motto. The
  Church preached that Kings ruled by Divine Right
  and the King promised to defend the faith.
• Spains King was the Holy Roman Emperor and he
  too had a vested interest in keeping the Faith.
• German and English crowns had their own motives
  for breaking with the Roman faith
• From the 1530s to 1648 Europe was a blood bath of
  religious wars
• French Huguenots wars raged from 1562 to 1598
  when Henry IV, a Huguenot, took the throne but
  reconverted to Catholicism
• There were more than 9 wars in this period where
  French fought French in a bid for the Catholic or
  Calvinist souls
• The Massacre on St. Bartholomews Eve in Paris
  during the Wedding of Queen Catherine de Medicis
  daughter to Henry the IV
• It was only with the Edict of Nantes in 1598 that
  France knew peace (Huguenots were restricted to
  200 towns)

28
Religious Wars

• Spanish Netherlands Wars
• Phillip II of Spain was by inheritance also the
  King of the Low Countries (Spanish Netherlands)
• By 1566 though, Calvinists in the Low Countries
  were protesting Catholic rule and especially
  taxes
• The Emperor sent his nephew, Duke of Parma, to
  govern over them and through a combination of
  carrot and stick he managed to retake at one
  point all the Netherlands
• Eventually, by the early 1600s it was plain that
  the northern provinces were united and would be
  independent. These became known as Holland today
  and the other provinces would eventually become
  known as Belgium give or take a few provinces.
• In 1609 a truce was established that would allow
  the northern provinces to worship freely and they
  had gained independence.
• War broke out again in 1621 and did not end until
  the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648

29
Religious Wars

• The 30 Years War
• In 1555, Charles V had signed the Peace of
  Augsburg allowing 255 German states to choose
  their own religion
• This changed however when Calvinists rose on the
  scene in the German countries they had no say
• When a Catholic Ferdinand III of Styria(Germany)
  took control of Bohemia a revolt ensued and war
  between Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists broke
  out
• Eventually, Spain, France, England, Holland,
  Austria and many German principalities joined in
  the fray
• From 1618 to 1648 war raged across central Europe
  until the Treaty of Westphalia was signed
• Spain was bankrupt and exhausted and from here on
  would never be the major power of Europe again

• Treaty of Westphalia
• Principle of whoever Rules the country determines
  the religion
• All lands secularized by the Protestants could
  remain
• All states of the Holy Roman Empire were free and
  independent states
• Calvinism is accepted as a religion
• Holland is recognized as an independent country
  from Spain
• The Counter-Reformation by the Church had
• Been checked!

30
Scientific Revolution1500s to 1700s

• This was a revolution of the greatest magnitude
• It changed how people thought about everything
• In Medieval times people believed that everything
  was a result of God
• Ptolemys universe had 5 elements which were Air,
  Water, Fire and Earth, and Aether
• Aristotles earth was the center of the universe
  and all heavenly bodies revolved around it
• Nicolas Copernicus blew the lid off of this by
  proving that the universe was heliocentric
• Isaac Newton, Galileo, Johannes Kepler,
  Descartes, Francis Bacon are just some of the
  greatest thinkers of the time
• Mathematics and astrology became the
  intellectuals international language and source
  for explaining everything
• Observation rather than faith became the focus of
  human activity

31

• Timeline
• 1543 Andreas Vesalius Publishes On the Fabric of
  the Human Body (Investigates the Human Body)
• 1543 Nicolas Copernicus Publishes De
  Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the
  Revolutions of Celestial Bodies) Copernicus'
  masterwork he sets out the heliocentric theory.
• 1584 Giordano Bruno Publishes The Ash-Wednesday
  Supper, On Cause, Principle, and Unity, and On
  the Infinite Universe and Its Worlds The
  universe is infinitely large and that the Earth
  is by no means at the center of it. Bruno is
  burned at the stake as a heretic.
• 1591 Francois Viete Invents Analytical
  Trigonometry Viete's invention is essential to
  the study of physics and astronomy.
• 1591 Galileo Galilei Demonstrates the Properties
  of Gravity Galileo demonstrates, from the top of
  the leaning tower of Pisa, that two different
  wieghts fall at the same speed thus destroying
  the Aristotelian system that the rate of fall of
  an object is dependent upon its weight.
• 1610 Galileo Publishes Messenger of the Heavens
  The Inquisition soon warns Galileo to desist from
  spreading his theories.
• 1614 John Napier Publishes Description of the
  Marvelous Canon of Logarithms Napier's invention
  and cataloguing of logarithms.
• 1618 Johannes Kepler Reveals His Third and Final
  Law of Planetary Motion Kepler's laws of
  planetary motion are the final step leading to
  the academic rejection of the Aristotelian
  system.
• 1620 Francis Bacon Publishes Novum Organum --
  Father of Modern Science
• Purge your mind of prejudiceswhat Bacon called
  superstition.
• Collect observations and experiences
  systematically.
• Stop, survey what you have seen, and draw initial
  conclusions
• .

32
1630 Galileo Publishes Dialogue on the Two Chief
Systems of the World Galileo's magnum opus uses
the laws of physics to refute the claims that the
laws of terrestrial physics are no different than
the laws of celestial physics. 1633 Galileo is
Forced to Recant his Theories The Inquisition
forces Galileo to sign a recantation and condemns
him to house arrest for the rest of his
life. 1637 Rene Descartes Publishes His
Discourse on Method Descartes' work sets forth
the principles of deductive reasoning as used in
the modern scientific method. 1637 Rene
Descartes Publishes Geometry In this landmark
work, Descartes discusses how motion may be
represented as a curve along a graph, defined by
its relation to planes of reference. 1643
Evangelista Torricelli Invents the Barometer
Torricelli's invention measures air pressure and
proves air has weight that differs depending on
environment. 1656 Otto von Guericke Invents the
Air Pump 1662 The Royal Society of London is
Officially Organized by King Charles II The Royal
Society brings together the greatest minds of the
region in efforts to advance science through
cooperation. 1666 Robert Boyle Publishes Origin
of Form and Qualities Boyle's work, though highly
flawed, sets the stage for the study of matter on
the atomic level. 1680 Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
Publishes On the Motion of Animals Borelli's work
is the greatest early triumph of the application
of mechanical laws to the human organism. 1687
Isaac Newton Publishes Philosophia Naturalis
Principia Mathematica Perhaps the most important
event in the history of science, the Principia
lays out Newton's comprehensive model of the
universe as organized according to the law of
universal gravitation. The Principia represents
the integration of the works of all of the great
astronomers who preceded Newton, and remains the
basis of modern physics and astronomy. 1692 The
Salem Witch Trials Take Place in Massachusetts
Indicative of the maintenance of traditional
superstitions even late in the seventeenth
century, 200 people are tried for witchcraft in
Salem, Massachusetts. Over 7,000 women were
executed for witchcraft in Europe between 1550
and 1700, largely in association with the various
theological battles of the Reformation.
33
Results of the Scientific Revolution

• The Renaissance had opened the doors to
  scientific inquiry but at the beginning of the
  scientific revolution men still clung to the
  ancient Greek and Roman texts as the foundation
  of truth
• The Printing Press allowed for an explosion of
  books and different thinkers were exchanging
  ideas with each other
• Scientists soon found that the ancients didnt
  know everything or were wrong about many things
  so how were people to know the truth if the bible
  nor the ancients had the facts
• Descartes Discourse on Methods established the
  idea of using deduction and hypothesis to prove
  things the scientific method is born.
• Descartes moved from science to philosophy and
  looked at the human body and tried to prove that
  the mind and soul existed. Known as Cartesian
  philosophy I reflect, therefore I am!
• Sir Francis Bacon was instrumental in applying
  ethics and rules for scientific study by
  cautioning against the bias and superstitions
  that in the past, led people to mistakes. He also
  introduces the inductive type of reasoning for
  scientific study.
• The Scientific Revolution did not immediately
  change the European world it itself had to be
  cautious and profess the study of science as a
  way of admiring Gods creations
• Most people were poor and illiterate and did not
  change their superstitious ways for generations
  but they would benefit from this revolution in
  economic, political and social ways
• This revolution led to the age of Enlightenment,
  the Industrial Revolution and Democracy
• All the while Europe would see a Feudal System
  move to an Absolute Monarchy System to an
  Enlightened Dictator system to a Democratic and
  Republican system.

34
Scientific Revolution

• Reason is the greatest enemy that faith has. It
  never comes to the aid of spiritual things, but
  struggles against the divine Word, treating with
  contempt all that emanates from God.
  -Martin Luther
• All nature and natures law lay hid in nightGod
  said let Newton be and all was light. -Alexand
  er Pope
• The real and legitimate goal of sciences is the
  endowment of human life with new inventions and
  riches. -Francis Bacon
• Science has done more for the development of
  western civilization in one hundred years that
  Christianity has done in eighteen hundred
  years. -John Burroughs

35
Absolutism vs Constitutional Monarchy(1600-1790)

• The changes of the Renaissance and Scientific
  Revolution had a deep impact on notions of govt
• People were becoming more nationalistic and less
  believing in the church and its vision of the
  Holy Roman Empire
• Leaders in different countries began to nurture
  their own power above that of the Vatican
• Two totally different systems develop at almost
  the same time the French Absolute Monarchy and
  the English Constitutional Monarchy
• Both will have repercussions on how Europe will
  develop, economically, politically, socially and
  in the Colonial world
• Both will play a role in the development of
  democracy as we know it today yet it is France,
  not Britain that will be the first democracy and
  republic in Europe

36
Absolute Monarchy

• Louis IV is the classic symbol of an Absolute
  Monarch (1638-1715)
• He believed strongly in the old French motto of
  One faith, one law, one king!
• He believed also strongly in the Divine Right of
  Kings theory whereby the king was answerable only
  to God
• His father Louis XIII began the difficult task of
  making France the supreme power of Europe
• Two things had to be subdued, the Church and the
  Nobility
• Key to this was the appointment of Cardinal
  Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin as prime ministers
  during Louis XIIIs rule
• Also important was Louis XIVs appointment of
  Colbert as finance minister
• Louis XIV was an expert at managing people and
  making sure they did not attain too much power

37
Absolute Monarchy

• Louis had his previous Finance Minister Fouquet
  charged with embezzlement and declared Colbert,
  lesser nobility, his Comptroller
• Louis also declared that he would be his own
  Prime Minister
• Louis XIV referred to himself as the Sun King
  and proclaimed that L'état cest moi! or I am
  the State!
• He successfully reduced the nobilitys power
  during the Fronde insurrection turning them
  into mere servants of the King
• He issued the Edict of Nantes (1685) and which
  prohibited Protestantism and destroyed the
  Huguenots in France thus making France of one
  Faith
• It also resulted in 200,000 fleeing France,
  thousands being executed and imprisoned.
• He instituted the old policy of Gallicanism and
  issued the Declaration of the Clergy of France.
  In it he refused to pay the Vatican certain tax
  monies and only the King would now appoint
  Cardinals and Bishops. French clergymen could
  not leave France without his permission. In
  effect he made the church subservient to the
  King.
• Reformed tax and trade practices.
• Reformed the legal code to what would be the
  foundations of the Napoleonic code.
• Won several wars and increased the size and power
  of France.
• Reformed the military creating the first true
  professional army the musketeers. The Secretary
  of War would collect taxes and pay the soldiers
  the intendents.
• Patron to the arts he showed off his power with
  the building of the Palace of Versailles
• In many respects Louis saw himself as a
  Benevolent King and proof that absolute monarchy
  was the best system of government.
• After his death the monarchy quickly declined so
  that his great grandson, Louis XVI would become
  the symbol of everything that was wrong with
  absolutism

38
Versailles
39
The English Experiment

• Events in England led to a different development
  in the search for a system of Govt
• There was the tradition and precedent of the
  Magna Carta (1215) which limited the rights of
  Kings and protected the peoples rights
• King Henry VIII, last king of the Tudors, broke
  from the church when the Pope refused him a
  divorce from his Queen Catherine of Aragon aunt
  to the Emperor Charles V
• He establishes the Protestant Anglican Church of
  England and effectively breaks from Rome forever
  being excommunicated in 1533
• Queen Elizabeth I eventually takes over as the
  last of the Tudor dynasty and her reign (1558
  -1603) is seen as a golden age
• She leaves no heir and so the throne passes to
  her cousins (Mary Queen of Scots) son James I,
  King of Scotland

40
The English Experiment

• King James I (1603-1625) was born a Catholic but
  raised a protestant after his mother was
  imprisoned
• His reign is recognized as a continuation of
  Elizabeths golden age but several problems occur
  between him and the nobles of England who do not
  want parliaments power reduced
• James I is a big believer in witchcraft and
  persecutes Catholics as did Elizabeth however he
  does grant them eventually freedom of worship
  which upsets the English protestant nobles
• James is also a believer in the Divine Right of
  Kings and tries to get parliament to be obedient
  to him and publishes the King James Bible version
• James had several problems with parliament but
  chief among them was the contest over raising
  funds for the crown.
• Parliament often refused the amount of money he
  asked for and he often dissolved parliament. He
  ruled from 1614 to 1621 with Parliament
  dissolved.
• James took over Ireland and began planting
  Protestants in Ulster, established the first
  colonies in the US and Canada

41
The English Experiment

• In 1625 Charles I takes over his father and
  begins a long battle with parliament
• Charles is also a believer in the Divine Right of
  Kings and their is constant trouble with
  Parliament
• He marries a Catholic princess of France which
  angers the protestants and he tries to curb the
  Calvinists and Puritans who demand reforms
• Ultimately the English Civil War (1646-1649)
  breaks out and Charles is imprisoned
• He is executed in 1649 when he refuses to
  abdicate the throne.
• Oliver Cromwell, a Calvinist Puritan and leader
  of the Parliament forces establishes the Rule of
  Parliament for the good of the people
• From 1649-1651 Cromwell attacks Ireland and
  Scotland in a bid to rid it of anti-Commonwealth
  forces massacres Catholic Irish and Scots in
  particular
• In 1653 he denounces the Rump Parliament and
  declares himself Lord Protector (1658)
• He died in 1658 of malaria and was posthumously
  executed in 1661 on the anniversary of Charles
  execution
• In 1660 Parliament agreed to reinstate the
  monarchy and Charles II took the throne

42
The English Experiment

• Charles IIs reign sees him strengthen the
  Anglican Church with the Clarendon Code
  Corporation Act 1661, Act of Uniformity 1662,
  Conventicle Act 1664 and Five Mile Act 1665.
• Charles II is secretly trying to bring England
  back into the Catholic fold but Parliament
  repeals any attempts to allow freedom of religion
  or tolerance
• Charles married the Portuguese princess Catherine
  of Braganza, further proof he was pro-Catholic
• In 1672 he issues the Royal Declaration of
  Indulgences which repeals the Penal Laws against
  Catholics but Parliament forces him to take it
  back
• In 1683 the Rye House Plot is revealed where
  Protestant ministers were planning to murder
  Charles and his brother James II after it was
  revealed that James was a Catholic
• He died in 1685 without an heir and converted to
  Catholicism on his deathbed
• His brother James II took over and ruled but it
  was a tense situation as Parliament had fears
  that the Monarchy would become Catholic again
• When James produced an heir it was the last straw
  and Parliament deposed James and called on the
  Protestant William of Orange to become king of
  England
• This was known as the Glorious Revolution (1689)
  since it was a bloodless coup

43

• Political Repercussions
• Absolutism will remain a reality of monarchies on
  the European continent while England will become
  a constitutional monarchy
• The idea that the people could execute a King
  sends shockwaves throughout the royal families of
  Europe and makes them even more wary of
  absolutist
• Ironically, Crowells attempt to create a
  republic ends in him turning it into a
  dictatorship (he left his son in charge when he
  died)
• In the colonies, the English experiment with
  republicanism seeds the notion of the rule of
  parliament and all people must be represented in
  parliament before they can be taxed
• Eventually this leads to the American Revolution
  of 1776 and its eventual independence
• Frances King Louis XVI willingly helps defeat
  Britain by sending money and troops to help the
  rebels
• The ideas of the American Revolution will find
  their way back to France and lead to the French
  Revolution
• Religious tolerance will not be tolerated in
  England or France but the United States does
  institutionalize the notion of freedom of
  religion
• By the late 1600s, the Roman Catholic Church has
  been sidelined by the combination of Humanism,
  the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution and
  Absolutism