Inequalities of Gender

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Chapter 10

• Inequalities of Gender

2
Chapter Outline

• Antecedents of Gender
• Theoretical Perspectives on Gender
• Sex Stereotypes and Gender Roles
• Gender Inequality
• Changing Gender Roles

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Antecedents of Gender

• Sex biological distinction between male and
  female.
• Biological determinism attribution of
  behavioral differences to inherited physical
  characteristics.
• Gender the expectations and behaviors
  associated with a sex category within a society,
  acquired through socialization.
• Gender identity an awareness of being masculine
  or feminine, based on culture.

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Gender and Behavior

• All societies have expectations and
  behaviors associated with a sex category.
• There are no genetically based behavior
  differences between sexes.
• Behavioral differences between men and women are
  culturally and socially created.

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Differences in Social Behavior

• In dozens of different cultures, men value
  physical appearance more than women do. Women
  place more emphasis on social class and income.
  Males generally tend more toward physical
  aggressiveness in conflict situations.
• Many researchers have been unable to consistently
  establish biological differences as an
  independent variable.

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Margaret Mead Culture and Socialization on
Gender Roles

• Among the Arapesh
• Mead found both males and females were
  conditioned to be cooperative, unaggressive, and
  empathetic.
• Men and women behaved in a way that is consistent
  with the traditional concept of the female gender
  role.

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Margaret Mead Culture an Socialization on Gender
Roles

• Among the Mundugumor
• Men and women were trained to be masculine -
  aggressive, ruthless, and unresponsive to the
  needs of others.
• In the Tchambuli tribe
• Gender roles were the opposite of those found in
  Western society. Women were dominant, impersonal,
  and aggressive, and men were dependent and
  submissive.

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Gender Across Cultures

• Gender behavior of the five-nation League of the
  Iroquois is matrilineal. Women had/have power and
  respect. Male dominancy and female subordination
  were absent in this culture where women took
  charge of village affairs, including military
  activities.
• Parents who intentionally treated their children
  as if they belonged to the opposite gender
  demonstrate that biological tendencies can be
  greatly influenced by culture and society.

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Gender Across Cultures

• The general pattern of gender roles in
  preliterate societies is male dominance and
  female nurturance.
• Womens tasks involve domestic chores, child
  rearing, and emotional harmony.
• Men provide financially for the family and
  represent the family in activities outside the
  home.

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Rotundos Conceptions of Manhood Three phases

• Culturally created conceptions of manhood.
• Communal manhood
• Developed in the socially integrated society of
  colonial New England.
• Definition of manhood was embedded in ones
  obligations to community.

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Rotundos Conceptions of Manhood Three phases

• Self-made manhood
• A mans work role became his source of male
  identity.
• Because a man was supposed to prove his
  superiority, the drive for dominance was viewed
  as virtuous.
• Women were assigned the role of protecting the
  common good.

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Rotundos Conceptions of Manhood Three phases

• Passionate manhood
• Emphasized not just achievement, but ambition,
  combativeness, and aggression.
• Male toughness was admired, tenderness scorned.

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Functionalist Perspective on Gender

• Division of responsibilities between males and
  females survived because it was beneficial for
  human living.
• Early humans found sex-based division of labor
  efficient.
• The traditional division of labor has
  dysfunctions, especially for modern society.

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Conflict Perspective on Gender

• Men and women have differential access to the
  necessary resources outside-the-home success.
• By keeping the traditional division of labor
  intact, men can maintain the status quo and
  preserve the privileges they enjoy.
• Contend that men want to maintain the status quo
  and protect their dominance of women and
  society.
• Traditional gender definitions are not
  appropriate and are outdated in the modern world.

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Conflict Perspective on Gender

• Marxist and socialist feminists see the position
  of women in capitalist society as the result of
  two interrelated influences patriarchal
  (male-dominated) institutions and the historical
  development of industrial capitalism.
• The subordination of women is seen as a key
  component in the maintenance of the political and
  economic institutions in capitalist society.

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Symbolic Interactionism Perspective on Gender

• Gender definitions are imparted through
  socialization.
• They are learned and reinforced through
  interaction with parents, teachers, peers, and
  the media.
• Gender socialization occurs through elements of
  the mass media such as books, television, and
  advertising.

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Summary Theoretical Perspectives
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Parents Contribution to Gender
Socialization

• Transfer values and attitudes regarding the ways
  boys and girls should behave.
• Parents expect boys to be more assertive and they
  discourage them from clinging.
• Infant girls are cuddled more, talked to more,
  and handled more gently.
• As parents respond to their childrens behavior,
  they usually intentionally as well as
  unconsciously continue to transfer their
  gender-related values.
• Children are evaluated according to their level
  of conformity to gender definition.

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Schools Contribution to Gender
Socialization

• Teachers encourage different behaviors from girls
  and boys.
• Teachers are more likely to call on boys and
  accept answers given by boys who call out
  answers.
• Sadkers (1995) conclude that through differential
  treatment, Americas schools often shortchange
  females gender bias results in an inferior
  education for girls.
• Girls are systematically taught passivity, a
  dislike of math and science, and a deference to
  the alleged superior abilities of boys.

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Sex Stereotypes

• Gender roles permit deviation from the ideal, but
  sex stereotypes are labels applied to all members
  of each sex.
• Sex stereotypes encourage men to be masculine and
  women to be feminine.
• Sex stereotypes and gender roles intensify role
  conflict and strain for men and women.

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Gender Roles

• Gender Roles culturally-based expectations
  associated with each sex.
• Represent an ideal since people do not always
  behave as expected.

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Marital Status of Women in the U.S. Civilian
Labor Force
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Questions for Consideration

• In what ways do gender roles create role conflict
  and role strain in our society (for males and
  females)?
• What do the patterns demonstrated in the previous
  table tell us about the demands that are placed
  on women differently?

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Women as a Minority Group

• Women suffer the effects of sexism a set of
  beliefs, norms, and values used to justify sexual
  inequality.
• Sexist ideology the belief that men are
  naturally superior to women.
• When the question Isnt sexism disappearing?
  the answer is yes and no.

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Questions for Consideration

• What gender inequalities exist today? Both
  demonstrated in the video and those you have seen
  but not in the video.
• What is a glass ceiling? What are some recent
  examples of people breaking through the glass
  ceiling?
• Do other groups of people face forms of the glass
  ceiling other than women?

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Gender Inequality

• Some women now hold positions traditionally
  reserved for men.
• In 2008, 10 female CEOs of Fortune 500 companies
  and 16 of corporate officers of these companies
  are female.
• Women now head a number of top universities.
• Percentage of women in the Army went from 9.4 in
  1981 to 15.5 in 2001.
• Women now comprise 18.3 of the Air Force and
  13.3 of the Navy.

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Gender Inequality

• Gaps continue to be reflected in the continuing
  occupational, economic, legal, and political
  inequality experienced by American women.

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Occupational and Economic Inequality

• From 1971 1989, more than a million additional
  women entered the labor force each year.
• In 1960, 23 million women worked outside the home
  for pay by 2000, the figure reached 66 million.
• In 2006, 55 of women worked outside the home
  compared to 82 of men.

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U.S. Labor Force Participation Rates by Sex
18902000
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Composition of the U.S. Labor Force by Sex,
18702008
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Womens Annual Earnings as of Mens Among
Full-Time Workers
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Women in the Workplace
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Questions for Consideration

• What are some reasons that countries with the
  highest gender income equality include highly
  developed countries like the U.S. and France as
  well as relatively underdeveloped countries like
  Angola and Kenya?
• What other patterns do you see in each of the
  previous charts/tables?

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Female-to-Male Earnings
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Legal and Political Inequality

• According to the U.S. Civil Rights Commission,
  more than 800 sections of the U.S. legal code are
  sexually biased.
• Dependent status of women permeates the law. For
  instance, a U.S. Supreme Court decision refused
  to grant women the legal guarantee of health
  insurance benefits for pregnancy-related medical
  costs, despite the fact that medical coverage for
  medical conditions unique to men was routinely
  provided.

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Legal and Political Inequality

• There are gender differences in criminal law.
• Certain crimes are typically associated with one
  gender or the other. For instance, laws against
  prostitution are generally enforced only against
  women, while male customers go free.
• Less than 1/4 of state legislators
  were women.
• Women occupy about 16 of the seats in the U.S.
  House of Representatives, yet comprise over 1/2
  of the population.

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Percentage of Women in Elective Offices
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Legal and Political Inequality

• Women also represent about 16 of the U.S. Senate
  in 2008.
• 1988 - Geraldine Ferraro is the first female U.S.
  vice-presidential candidate
• 2008 - Sarah Palin is the second female U.S.
  vice-presidential candidate
• 2002 - Nancy Pelosi becomes the first female
  House Minority Whip, and then in 2007 becomes the
  first female Speaker of the House

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Women in Public Office
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Questions for Consideration

• Is it surprising that women did not have the full
  legal right to vote in so many states prior to
  1920?
• What was the voting situation for women in your
  home state prior to the Nineteenth Amendment?
• What do you think might explain the
  regional differences relative to womens suffrage?

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Gender Roles In The Future

• Emergent pluralism
• There would be no restrictions on the options
  available to either sex.
• Individuals following traditional gender roles
  would exist alongside those who are pursuing a
  different course.

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Gender Roles In The Future

• Conservative pluralism
• Mens and womens roles would be different but
  valued equally.
• All roles, whether male or female, would be
  considered equally important and rewarded
  accordingly.

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Gender Roles In The Future

• Melting pot
• No important differences in gender roles for men
  and women.
• Male and female roles would be
  combined.
• Men and women would be strong and
  self-sufficient, yet capable of expressing
  emotion and sensitivity.

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Gender Roles in the Future

• Assimilation to the male model of
  success
• Women would be encouraged to follow the masculine
  role if they participate in traditionally male
  activities.
• Women could become doctors, lawyers, and
  businesspersons if they behaved like men.
• Feminine traits would be considered a
  hindrance.

45
Gender Roles in the Future

• Female exclusion
• There would be a continuation of traditional
  gender roles.
• On the assumption that sex differences are
  biological, men and women would be excluded from
  exchanging tasks.
• Women would be discouraged from assuming male
  roles, and their own tasks would be
  under-rewarded.

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Questions for Consideration

• What are factors that promote change in gender
  roles, gender inequality, etc.?
• What is your reaction to the identified
  definition of feminism as a social movement
  aimed at the achievement of sexual equality?
  Based on this definition, would you classify
  yourself as a feminist or non-feminist?