Topic 8: MEMORY: How the MIND works

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Topic 8MEMORY How the MIND works
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• Have you ever wondered
• how you manage to remember information for a
  test?
• How you are able to create new memories, store
  them for periods of time, and recall them when
  they are needed.
• This is due to our MEMORY.
• But what exactly is memory? And How are memories
  formed?

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Our Mind is like the Computer
Retrieve
Input
Store the information Save it
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We are
walking
computers
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What is memory?

• Memory refers to the processes that are used to
  acquire, store, retain and later retrieve
  information.
• There are three major processes involved in
  memory
• encoding,
• storage and
• retrieval.

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What is memory?

• Encoding or registration (receiving, processing
  and combining of received information)
• Storage (creation of a permanent record of the
  encoded information)
• Retrieval, recall or recollection (calling back
  the stored information in response to some cue
  for use in a process or activity)
• In order to form new memories, information must
  be changed into a usable form, which occurs
  through the process known as encoding.
• Once information has been successfully encoded,
  it must be stored in memory for later use.
• Most of the stored memory lies outside of our
  awareness most of the time, except when we
  actually need to use it.
• The retrieval process allows us to bring stored
  memories into conscious awareness.

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What is Memory?

• Memory is the core to most of our
  cognitive process. Because.
• Memory is the storing of learned information,
  and the ability to recall that which has been
  stored.
• The mental faculty of retaining and recalling
  past experience.
• Research indicates that the ability to retain
  information is fairly uniform among normal
  individuals? what differs is the degree to which
  persons learn or take account of something to
  begin with and the kind and amount of detail that
  is retained.

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How does Memory relate to learning?

• Memory and learning are the basis of
  all our knowledge and abilities.
• Learning is the process of acquiring new
  knowledge, while.
• Memory helps retain the learned
  knowledge.
• Thus, memory is the brains ability to
  acquire, store, retain and retrieve
  information.

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Types of memory

• Memory can be classified into 2 primary
  types
• Explicit memory - Declarative memory (conscious
  memory)
• Implicit memory procedural memory (automatic
  unconscious)

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Explicit Memory Implicit Memory

• Explicit Memory
  (can be divided into STM
  LTM)
• It allows a person to recall consciously
  describe verbally information, e.g. facts, people
  etc
• Types of memory that contains info re specific
  events that happen at a specific time place.
• Forming storing memory are associated with
  past experience/knowledge.
• Implicit Memory
  (repetition priming,
  conditioning motor skills)
• Previous experience assist a person to perform
  task without any conscious awareness of the past
  experience.
• Through repetition priming skill learning a
  person would become better on task performance
  

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How our MIND works
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
SENSORY MEMORY
fleeting less than one second
working memory less than 20 seconds
unlimited stable
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Information Processing Model The Stage Theory
(Atkinson Shiffrin, 1968)
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Types of Memory

• Sensory register
• Part of memory that receives all the
  information a person senses from the environment
  and stores it fleetingly.
• Short term memory
• A part where new information is stored
  temporarily, until it is either lost or placed
  into long term memory
• Also known as working memory, where a decision
  must be made to discard information or to
  transfer it to permanent storage, in long-term
  memory.
• Long Term memory
• Part of memory which has unlimited capacity
  can hold information indefinitely.
• the encyclopedic mental processing unit in which
  information may be stored permanently and from
  which it may be later retrieved.

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• Short term memory
• A temporary storage area that is used for
  unprocessed visual or auditory information that
  last up to 30 sec.
• STM -limited capacity - up to 7 pieces of
  independent information.
• Memory loss is due to decaying of information.
• 3 basic operations in STM
• Iconic memory ability to hold visual image
• Acoustic memory the ability to hold sounds
• Working memory process that temporarily store
  manipulate information for immediate use

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• Long Term memory
• Part of memory which has unlimited capacity
  can hold information indefinitely.
• LTM can be divide into
• Episodic memory memory of specific events or
  episodes that an individual experienced
• Semantic memory memory that includes
  knowledge of words meaning and is an essential
  element of language.

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So how do we retain information
in our Long-Term Memory ?
1. Organise the information properly
2. Rehearsal (i.e repetition)
3. Elaboration
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How Is Information Organized In Memory?

• The ability to access and retrieve information
  from long-term memory allows us to actually use
  these memories to
• make decisions,
• interact with others,
• solve problems, etc
• Exactly how are information organized in memory
  is unclear, but researchers do know that these
  memories are arranged in groups.

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• Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum, table, green,
  pineapple, purple, chair, peach, yellow

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How Is Information Organized In Memory?

• Clustering is used to organize related
  information into groups.
• Information that is categorized becomes easier to
  remember and recall.
• For example, consider the following group of
  words Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum, table,
  green, pineapple, purple, chair, peach, yellow
• Spend a few seconds reading them, then look away
  and try to recall and list these words.
• How did you group the words when you listed them?
  
• Most people will list using three different
  categories color, furniture and fruit.

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How Is Information Organized In Memory?

• One way of thinking about memory organization is
  known as the semantic network model.
• This model suggests that certain triggers
  activate associated memories ? i.e. a memory of a
  specific place might activate memories about
  related things that have occurred in that place.
• For example, thinking about a certain campus
  building might trigger memories of attending
  classes, studying and socializing with peers.

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Memory Retrieval

• Memory retrieval is important for our daily life,
  e.g. from remembering where you parked your car
  to learning new skills.
• Once information has been encoded and stored in
  memory, it must be retrieved in order to be used.
  
• There are many factors that can influence how
  memories are retrieved from long-term memory.
• In order to fully understand this process, it is
  important to understand exactly what retrieval is
  and what are the factors that can impact how
  memories are retrieved.
• Memory Retrieval is a process of accessing stored
  memories.
• Retrieval cues can be use ? can have an impact
  on how information is retrieved.
• A retrieval cue - a clue/prompt used to trigger
  the retrieval of longterm memory.

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What Is Memory Retrieval?

• Four basic ways in which information can be
  pulled from long-term memory.
• Recall Type of memory retrieval involves being
  able to access the information without being
  cued. For example, answering a question on a
  fill-in-the-blank test is a good example of
  recall.
• Recollection Type of memory retrieval involves
  reconstructing memory, often utilizing logical
  structures, partial memories, narratives or
  clues. For example, writing an answer on an essay
  exam often involves remembering bits on
  information, and then restructuring the remaining
  information based on these partial memories.
• Recognition This type of memory retrieval
  involves identifying information after
  experiencing it again. For example, taking a
  multiple choice quiz requires that you recognize
  the correct answer out of a group of available
  answers.
• Relearning This type of memory retrieval
  involves relearning information that has been
  previously learned. This often makes it easier to
  remember and retrieve information in the future
  and can improve the strength of memories.

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Problems with Retrieval

• Not every retrieval process works perfectly.
• Have you ever felt like you knew the answer to a
  question, but couldn't quite remember the
  information?
• This phenomenon is known as a 'tip of the
  tongue' experience. You might feel certain that
  this information is stored somewhere in your
  memory, but you are unable to access and retrieve
  it.
• Schacter (2001) said that these experiences are
  extremely common, typically occurring at least
  once each week for most younger individuals and
  two to four times per week for elderly adults.

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Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips

• 1. Focus your attention on the materials you are
  studying.
• 2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study
  sessions.
• 3. Structure and organize the information you are
  studying.
• 4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember
  information.
• 5. Elaborate and rehearse the information you are
  studying.
• 6. Relate new information to things you already
  know.
• 7. Visualize concepts to improve memory and
  recall.
• 8. Teach new concepts to another person.
• 9. Pay extra attention to difficult information.
• 10. Vary your study routine.

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Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips

• Focus your attention on the materials you are
  studying.
• Attention is a major components of memory.
  For information to move from short-term memory
  into long-term memory ?need to actively attend to
  this information. Try to study in a place free of
  distractions such as television, music and other
  diversions.
• 2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study
  sessions.
• According to Bjork (2001), studying materials
  over a number of session's gives you the time you
  need to adequately process the information. Those
  who study regularly remember the material far
  better than those who did all of their studying
  in one marathon session.
• 3. Structure and organize the information you are
  studying.
• Researchers have found that information is
  organized in memory in related clusters. S0,
  structure organize the materials you are
  studying. Try grouping similar concepts and terms
  together, or make an outline of your
  notes/textbook readings to help group related
  concepts.

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Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips

• 4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember
  information.
• A mnemonic is simply a way to remember informatio
  ? a technique used to aid in recall. For example,
  you might associate a term you need to remember
  with a common item that you are very familiar
  with (rhyme). Use a rhyme, song/joke to help
  remember.
• 5. Elaborate rehearse the information you are
  studying.
• In order to recall information, you need to
  encode what you are studying into long-term
  memory ? use elaborative rehearsal. An example of
  this technique would be to read the definition of
  a key term, study the definition of that term and
  then read a more detailed description of what
  that term means. After repeating this process a
  few times, your recall of the information will be
  far better.

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Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips

• 6. Relate new information to things you already
  know.
• Establishing relationships between new ideas and
  previously existing memories, When you are
  studying unfamiliar material, take the time to
  think about how this information relates to
  things that you already know.
• 7. Visualize concepts to improve memory and
  recall.
• Many benefit from visualizing the information
  they study ? focus on the photos, charts,
  graphics etc. If you do not have visual cues to
  help, try creating your own. Draw charts or
  figures in the margins of your notes/use
  highlighter/pens in different colours to group
  related ideas in your notes.
• 8. Teach new concepts to another person.
• Research suggests that reading out loud can
  improves memory of the material or teaching new
  concepts to others enhances understanding and
  recall. You can use this approach in your own
  studies by teaching new concepts and information
  to a friend or study partner

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Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips

• 9. Pay extra attention to difficult information.
• Have you ever noticed how it's sometimes easier
  to remember information at the beginning or end
  of a chapter? Researchers have found that the
  position of information can play a role in
  recall, which is known as the serial position
  effect. While recalling middle information can be
  difficult, you can overcome this problem by
  spending extra time rehearsing this information.
  Another strategy is to try restructuring the
  information so it will be easier to remember.
  When you come across an especially difficult
  concept, devote some extra time to memorizing the
  information.
• 10. Vary your study routine.
• Another great way to increase your recall is to
  occasionally change your study routine. If you
  are accustomed to studying in one specific
  location, try moving to a different spot to
  study. If you study in the evening, try spending
  a few minutes each morning reviewing the
  information you studied the previous night. By
  adding an element of novelty to your study
  sessions, you can increase the effectiveness of
  your efforts and significantly improve your
  long-term recall.

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FORGETTING
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Why do we sometimes forget what we have learnt ?
1. Not properly stored / studied
2. Fading (lack of rehearsal)
3. Too much cramming
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Limits Failure of memory

• Important for us to understand how our
  memory succeeds and fails because it helps us to
  uncover the limits of memory in our everyday
  life.
• Types of memory
• Good memory
• Autobiographical Memory
• Prospective Memory
• Memory across lifespan
• Eyewitness memory
• False Memories
• Memory damage

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Limits Failure of memory

• Types of memory -
• Good memory we can recognize easily using
  visual stimuli, but poor recall for pictures and
  faces.
• Autobiographical Memory recall personal events
  especially those that are emotionally based.
• Prospective Memory remembering to do things
  or failure to do so rather than remembering
  past events or facts.
• Memory across lifespan our memory improves as
  we get older, but slower around 65 years old.

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Limits Failure of memory

• Types of memory -
• Eyewitness memory memory details of events we
  just saw is often difficult
• False Memories the questions is whether a
  memory is genuine or distorted due to
  misleading questions or information.
• Memory damage loss of memory due to brain
  damage through infection, stroke or head injury

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What is Forgetting?

• When Memory Fails?
• Forgetting typically involves a failure in memory
  retrieval. While the information is somewhere in
  your long-term memory, you are not able to
  actually retrieve and remember it.
• Forgetting (retention loss) refers to
• apparent loss of information already encoded and
  stored in an individual's long term memory.
• a spontaneous or gradual process in which old
  memories are unable to be recalled from memory
  storage.
• It is subject to delicately balanced optimization
  that ensures that relevant memories are recalled.
  
• Forgetting can be reduced by repetition and/or
  more elaborate cognitive processing of
  information.

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The Ebbinghaus Forgetting CurveWhat is
Forgetting?

• Psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (Father of
  Memory) Research was one of the first to
  scientifically study forgetting ? used himself as
  the subject.
• Pioneered experimental study of memory, and
  discovered the forgetting curve and the spacing
  effect.
• In order to test for new information, Ebbinghaus
  tested his memory for periods of time ranging
  from 20 minutes to 31 days. He then published his
  findings in 1885 in Memory A Contribution to
  Experimental Psychology.

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• EFC revealed a relationship between forgetting
  and time.
• How quickly these memories are lost depend on
• how the information was learned
• how frequently it was rehearsed
• The forgetting curve also showed that forgetting
  does not continue to decline until all of the
  information is lost.
• At a certain point, the amount of forgetting
  levels off. What exactly does this mean? It
  indicates that information stored in long-term
  memory is surprisingly stable.

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The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
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Why Forgot?

• Elizabeth Loftus, has identified four major
  reasons why people forget
• retrieval failure
• Interference
• failure to store
• motivated forgetting

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Why Forgot?

• 1. Retrieval Failure
• Decay theory - explain why some retrieval fails
  ? i.e. a memory trace is created every time a new
  theory is formed.
• Decay theory suggests that over time, these
  memory traces begin to fade and disappear.
• Forgetting is simply an inability to retrieve a
  memory. If information is not retrieved and
  rehearsed, it will eventually be lost.
• decay theory
• passage of time ? forgetting
• does not explain all instances of forgetting

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2. Interference

• Interference theory suggests that some memories
  compete interfere with other memories. When
  information is very similar to other information
  that was previously stored in memory,
  interference is more likely to occur.
• 2 basic types of interference
• Proactive interference
• is when an old memory makes it more difficult or
  impossible to remember a new memory.
• Retroactive interference
• occurs when new information interferes with your
  ability to remember previously learned
  information.

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• 3. Failure to Store
• We also forget information because it never
  actually made it into long-term memory.
• Encoding failures sometimes prevent information
  from entering long-term memory.
• E.g Details on your 20 cents 50 cent coin
• Only details necessary for distinguishing the
  value other coins were encoded into your
  long-term memory.
• 4. Motivated Forgetting
• Sometimes, we actively work to forget memories,
  esp those of traumatic or disturbing events or
  experiences.
• The two basic forms of motivated forgetting are
• suppression, a conscious form of forgetting
• repression, an unconscious form of forgetting.

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Motivated forgetting

• Motivated forgetting referring to a psychological
  defence mechanism in which people forget unwanted
  memories, either consciously or unconsciously.
• There are times when memories are reminders of
  unpleasant experiences that make people angry,
  sad, anxious, ashamed or afraid.
• Motivated forgetting is a method in which people
  protect themselves by blocking the recall of
  these anxiety-arousing memories.
• E.g if something reminds a person of an
  unpleasant event, his or her mind may steer
  towards unrelated topics. This could induce
  forgetting without being generated by an
  intention to forget, making it a motivated
  action.

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TASK

• Read the following Discuss the answers

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• Neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot was the first to
  do research into hysteria as a psychological
  disorder in the late 19th century. Sigmund Freud,
  Joseph Breuer, and Pierre Janet continued with
  the research that Charcot began on hysteria.
  These three psychologists determined that
  hysteria was an intense emotional reaction to
  some form of severe psychological disturbance,
  and they proposed that incest and other sexual
  traumas were the most likely cause of hysteria.
  The treatment that Freud, Breuer, and Pierre
  agreed upon was named the talking cure and
  was a method of encouraging patients to recover
  and discuss their painful memories. During this
  time, Janet created the term disaociation which
  is referred to as a lack of integration amongst
  various memories. He used dissociation to
  describe the way in which traumatizing memories
  are stored separately from other memories. The
  publication of Freuds famous paper, the
  Aetiology of Hysteria, in 1896 led to much
  controversy regarding the topic of these
  traumatic memories. Freud stated that neurosis
  were caused by repressed sexual memories, which
  suggested that incest and sexual abuse must be
  common throughout upper and middle class Europe.
  The psychological community did not accept
  Freuds ideas, and years passed without further
  research on the topic.It was during World War 1
  and Worls War II that interest in memory
  disturbances was piqued again. During this time,
  many cases of memory loss appeared among war
  veterans, especially those who had experienced
  shell shock. Hypnosis and drugs became popular
  for the treatment of hysteria during the war. The
  term post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was
  introduced upon the appearance of similar cases
  of memory disturbances from veterans of the
  Korean War. Forgetting, or the inability to
  recall a portion of a traumatic event, was
  considered a key factor for the diagnosis of
  PTSD.
• Ann Burgess and Lynda Holmstrom looked into
  trauma related memory loss in rape victims during
  the 1970s. This began a large outpouring of
  stories related to childhood sexual abuse. It
  took until 1980 to determine that memory loss due
  to all severe traumas was the same set of
  processes. The idea of motivated forgetting began
  with the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche in 1894.
  Nietzshe and Sigmund Freud had similar views on
  the idea of repression of memories as a form of
  self-preservation. Nietzsche wrote that man must
  forget in able to move forward. He stated that
  this process is active, in that we forget
  specific events as a defense mechanism.

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The hippocampus is located in the medial temporal
lobe of the brain. In this lateral view of the
human brain, the frontal lobe is at left, the
occipital lobe at right, and the temporal and
parietal lobes have largely been removed to
reveal the hippocampus underneath.

• Occipital lobe
• Frontal Lobe
• Critical thinking problem solving
• Frontal cortex ? area of the cortex that controls
  personality and the ability to carry out plans

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MOTIVATED FORGETTING

• MF occurs as a result of activity that occurs
  within the prefrontal cortex (i.e. the anterior
  cingulate cortex (ACC), intraparietal sulcus
  (IS) , dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DPC) and
  ventrolateral prefrontal cortex VPC)).
• also associated with stopping unwanted actions,
  which confirms the hypothesis that the
  suppression of unwanted memories and actions
  follow a similar inhibitory process. These
  regions are also known to have executive
  functions within the brain. E.g
• AAC ? has functions linked to motivation and
  emotion.
• IS ? functions that include coordination between
  perception and motor activities, visual
  attention, symbolic numerical processing.
• DPC ?plans complex cog activities processes
  decision making.

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MOTIVATED FORGETTING

• Another key brain structure involved in motivated
  forgetting is the hippocampus ? responsible for
  the formation and recollection of memories.
• When the process of motivated forgetting happens
  ? meaning that we actively attempt to suppress
  our unwanted memories, the prefrontal cortex
  exhibits higher activity than baseline, while
  suppressing hippocampal activity at the same
  time.
• The executive areas which control motivation and
  decision-making lessen the functioning of the
  hippocampus in order to stop the recollection of
  the selected memories that the subject has been
  motivated to forget.

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SCL

• Discuss the following
• What are the differences between explicit
  memory implicit memory? Examples
• What are the differences between Episodic
  memory Semantic memory? Examples
• Why do we fail to remember?
• What are the differences between Ebbinghaus
  theory, Decay theory Interference theory .
• Find out tip on How Not to Forget Things!