Aggression in Sport

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Aggression in Sport

• Hagger Chatzisarantis, Chapter 8, pages 193-208

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Aggression in Sport

• Aggression is often displayed in sport and
  sometimes boils over into unmitigated displays of
  violence
• Often implicitly or explicitly advocated by
  spectators, coaches etc. and cite reasonable
  provocation or justification
• Much media attention places on displays of
  aggression, usually with high moral ground

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Of the nine red cards this season we probably
deserved half of them
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Aggression in Sport

• Why do players resort to aggression and violent
  conduct when they know they will be penalised?
• Why do coaches defend their players when they can
  clearly see that such aggression is
  counter-productive?
• What role does the media play in perpetuating
  such aggression?

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What is Aggression?

• Violent or aggravated behaviours
• are not necessarily aggression
• e.g., angry gestures, equipment
• abuse
• Aggression is a set of behaviours that are likely
  to, or have the potential to, cause harm to
  others, are intended to cause harm, and are
  goal-directed (Berkowitz, 1993)

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Aggression

• Question Does aggression need to result in
  actual harm to a sports player?

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Aggression in Sport

• Coaches often want players to display more
  aggression in their play what they actually
  mean, in psychological terms, is they want to see
  more assertive behaviours
• Assertive behaviours reflect behaviours that are
  physically vociferous, but do not contravene
  rules nor do they have the intent to harm, rather
  they are aimed at imposing influence and dominance

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Aggression in Sport

• Some assertive behaviours
• are tolerated by officials in
• sports such as the Haka-
• the provocative display
• performed by the NZ all blacks
• rugby team
• Other behaviours that are violent but are neither
  assertive (aim to influence/dominate) nor
  aggressive (intent to harm) are not tolerated
  e.g., bad language, equipment abuse

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Types of Aggression

• Two types of aggression (Silva, 1980)
• Hostile aggression Has the primary goal of
  injuring another person or player e.g., response
  to provocation, high emotional arousal, usually
  spontaneous
• Instrumental aggression Has intent to harm
  another but with the superordinate goal to
  achieve an outcome that is beneficial to the
  player or the team e.g., planned or calculated
  aggressive acts

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Types of Aggression

• Hostile aggression Supersedes
• other goals of the sport such as
• scoring points or goals and usually
• distracts players from their role in
• the team
• E.g. Roy Keane (2001) Id waited long enough. I
  hit him fing hard. The ball was there (I
  think). Take that, you c. I didnt wait for Mr
  Elleray to show the card. I turned and walked to
  the dressing room

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Types of Aggression
Assertive behaviour 1. No intent to harm 2.
Legitimate force 3. Unusual effort and energy
expenditure
Instrumental aggression 1. Intent to harm 2. Goal
to win 3. No anger
Hostile aggression 1. Intent to harm 2. Goal to
harm 3. Unusual effort and energy expenditure
Source Silva (1980)
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Types of Aggression

• Silvas (1980) model illustrates the core
  features of each type of aggression
• Also illustrates that there is some ambiguity
  in all three
• Such definitions do not encapsulate all instances
  of aggressive or assertive type of behaviour
• Gamesmanship performing behaviours that are not
  illegitimate according to the rules but are
  considered unsportspersonlike
• E.g. tennis coach instructing players to hit the
  ball at the opponent, sledging in cricket

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Theories of Aggression

• 1. Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Dollard et
  al., 1939)
• Aggression the product of an anger response to
  the frustration of goals and desires
• Aggression directed to perceived source of
  frustration
• e.g. hockey players aim of scoring goals is
  frustrated due to lack of service from her
  wing-players but also marked out of the game by
  opponents may lead her to assault the marking
  defender out of frustration
• However, competitive environs lead to lots of
  frustration but seldom is that expressed in terms
  of aggression

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Theories of Aggression

• 2. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997)
• Observational learning (imitation and vicarious
  experience) during childhood may contribute to
  violent actions (c.f. Bobo doll experiments)

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Bobo Doll Experiment

• Bandura et al. (1961) Children watched an adult
  playing with Bobo doll (5-foot inflated plastic
  doll).

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Theories of Aggression

• 2. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997)
• Observational learning (imitation and vicarious
  experience) during childhood may contribute to
  violent actions (c.f. Bobo doll experiments)
• Explained the social circumstances under which
  violent/aggressive acts might arise
• Factors include
• Past experience of aggressive behaviour (personal
  and observed)
• Previous success with aggressive behaviours in
  terms of fulfilling personal goals
• The expected pattern of reinforcement of
  aggression rewarded or punished?
• Psychological (e.g., personality), personal
  (e.g., verbal encouragement), and environmental
  (e.g., presence of significant others) factors
• More comprehensive that frustration-aggression
  because it charts the development and conditions
  under which aggression occurs

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Theories of Aggression

• Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997)
• Application of theory Russell (1979) hero
  selection in fans
• Interviews and archival data found that goals
  scored but also penalties conceded were
  influential in selection
• Influence of penalties suggested that aggressive
  behaviours were viewed positively by fans
• Media coverage perhaps enhanced this reputation
  which made such behaviours integral to perceived
  success
• BUT no link between aggressive displays in
  supported teams and aggressive behaviour in fans

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Theories of Aggression

• Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997)
• Connelly (1988) suggests that modeling aggressive
  behaviours may help non-assertive players
• But these need to be checked with distinctions
  between legitimate, goal-directed and assertive
  behaviours and aggressive behaviours (c.f.
  Silvas (1980) model)
• Modeling may therefore help coaches enhance the
  assertiveness of players, but should be used in
  conjunction with education and information on the
  distinction between aggressive and assertive
  behaviours

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Theories of Aggression

• 3. Personality and Individual Differences
• Little evidence that one single personality trait
  that characterises an aggressive personality
• Agreeableness consistently and negatively linked
  with aggression
• Agreeableness personality dimension linked to
  maintaining positive and harmonious social
  relationships
• Zuckerman et al. (1993) isolated an
  aggressiveness/hostility personality trait
• No link between this trait and aggressive
  behaviours in sport

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Theories of Aggression

• Personality and Individual Differences
• Type A personalities Highly competitive,
  driven, extrovert individuals
• Type A personalities tend to be attracted to
  sport (Biasi, 1999)
• Some evidence type A is related to displays of
  aggression and hostility in competitive
  situations
• Situational factors (e.g., competitive or
  frustrating environment) may interact with
  personality factors like type A to foster
  aggressive behaviour
• But in many sports (e.g., dancing) no extrovert
  or aggressive behaviours are observed as
  emotionality and aggressive displays are
  perceived as signs of weakness (group norm)
• Personality effects criticised as they tend to
  downplay the situation
• Social cognitive variables such as group norms,
  group cohesion and self-efficacy can mitigate
  personality effects

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Factors Influencing Aggression

• The Cathartic Hypothesis
• Catharsis The feeling of release after an
  emotion-expressing experience
• Often thought that aggression assists in this
  process helping express pent-up frustration
• Often held belief that aggression in sport serves
  a cathartic purpose is the cathartic hypothesis
• This belief is prevalent e.g. Wann et al. (1999)
  found that viewers of aggressive sports believed
  that this made them personally less aggressive
• Sports coaches and school teachers also found to
  believe that sports with aggressive
  characteristics are healthy due to their
  cathartic nature

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Factors Influencing Aggression

• The Cathartic Hypothesis
• Little evidence to support the cathartic
  hypothesis
• Evidence suggests that exposure to aggressive
  sports does not reduce aggressive displays
  elsewhere, but may increase it
• Bushman et al. (1999)
• Gave students a pro-catharsis essay
• Essay subjected to criticism by another unseen
  student (actually the researcher)
• Participants were more likely to choose a
  punch-bag task afterwards and administer
  punishment to the other student afterwards
• Cathartic hypothesis is a belief rather than an
  effect (Bennett, 1991)

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Factors Influencing Aggression

• Gender
• Men are more likely to engage in aggressive
  behaviour (Wrangham Peterson, 1996)
• Men are also more likely to display aggressive
  attitudes and beliefs (Eagly Chaiken, 1993)

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Factors Influencing Aggression
Gender differences in US crime statistics
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Factors Influencing Aggression

• Gender
• Men are more likely to engage in aggressive
  behaviour (Wrangham Peterson, 1996)
• Men are also more likely to display aggressive
  attitudes and beliefs (Eagly Chaiken, 1993)
• This may be due to
• Elevated levels of androgens (e.g., testosterone)
• Evolutionary benefit to aggression in terms of
  status and dominance
• Socialisation of aggressive tendencies during
  development
• Majority of aggressive acts in sport are
  committed by men and it is more endorsed by men
  (Tucker Parks, 2001 Rainey, 1986)

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Factors Influencing Aggression

• Gender
• Young girls tend to express higher levels of
  moral behaviour in sport and rate such behaviours
  as more virtuous (Stephens Bredemeier, 1996)
• Females do endorse aggressive behaviours if the
  group norm endorses it (Tucker Parks, 2001)
• Females are much less likely to engage in verbal
  and physical aggressive behaviour than men
• BUT are equally likely to engage in verbal
  assault as men (Harris, 1992)

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Factors Influencing Aggression

• Morality Issues
• Social identity theory states that people in
  groups tend to forgo their personal attitudes and
  beliefs and assume those of the group they
  adhere to the group norm and become
  deindividuated
• Bredemeier and Shields (1986) suggest that sports
  players in teams can adopt a bracketed morality
  in which the usual moral obligation to equally
  consider the need and desires of all persons is
  suspended
• In the group aggressive acts can therefore be
  tolerated or condoned if the norm permits it
• Bredemeier and Shields (1986) found basketball
  players gave fewer prosocial and more egocentric
  reasons to moral dilemmas in sport

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Factors Influencing Aggression

• Arousal
• Arousal is heightened with physical exertion and
  remains elevated for a while thereafter
• Evidence suggests that such arousal may be
  misinterpreted as anger or frustration c.f.
  Zillman et al.s (1974) cycling experiment
• Feelings of anger may be elevated in intense
  sports and, if the group norm legitimises it, may
  be expressed as aggression

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Factors Influencing Aggression

• Hormones and Steroid Abuse
• One side effect of misuse of steroids for
  performance enhancement is aggressive behaviour
• There is a clear link between aggressive
  behaviour and steroid abuse (Pope Katz, 1994)
• This is particularly the case if the steroid
  mimics the androgen testosterone, which itself is
  linked with aggression (van Goozen et al., 1994)
• Likely to be a small contributing factor but may
  interact with situational factors result in
  aggressive behaviour in sport

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Collective Aggression

• Collective aggressive behaviour is prevalent in
  sport, particularly among crowds of spectators or
  fans
• In certain sports seems to be very prevalent e.g.
  association football but some sports are almost
  completely immune e.g. cricket
• Sport is ingrained in the social fabric and
  groups of fans mood and emotions, motivation, and
  personal relationships seem to be ensconced in
  the fortunes of their supported team (e.g., Nick
  Hornbys Fever Pitch)

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Collective Aggression

• Fernquist (2000) found a direct negative
  correlation between homicide and suicide rates
  and success in local sports teams in US cited
  between 1971 and 1990
• Suggested broken promises theory frustration
  of unfulfilled hopes of sports teams lead to
  social manifestations of those negative emotions

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Definitions

• Collective aggression Violent, unified
  behaviours displayed by a group or crowd of
  people with intent to cause harm or injury to
  another group or individual
• Crowd violence A form of collective aggression
  among sports supporters or fans
• Hooliganism Crowd violence often among fans or
  supporters of association football teams in
  Europe

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Theoretical Accounts of Collective Aggression

• Social Identity Theory
• Aims to describe the mechanisms by which groups
  influence individuals behaviour
• Individuals forgo their individual identity and
  assume the attitudes, beliefs, expectations, and
  norms of the group deindividuation
• As group members self-esteem is tied in with the
  fate of the group a threat to the group is a
  threat to each individual
• Individuals self-stereotype themselves as typical
  group members
• Members from the ingroup (us) are viewed
  unequivocally positively and outgroups (them)
  likely to be viewed negatively
• This can lead to prejudice and discrimination
  towards outgroup members

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Collective Aggression and Social Identity

• I didnt look hard, in truth I was nowhere near
  as big as I should have been, and wore black
  framed Brains-style National Health reading
  glasses But those who mumble about the loss of
  identity that football fans must endure miss the
  point this loss of identity can be a
  paradoxically enriching process. Who wants to be
  stuck with who they are all the time? I for one
  wanted time out from being a jug-eared,
  bespectacled, suburban twerp once in a whileI
  knew it wasnt me that made people hurry to the
  other side of the road, it was us, and I was part
  of us, an organ in the hooligan body.
• Nick Hornby, Fever Pitch, 1992

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Social Identity Theory

• Deindividuation occurs as group members assume
  the attributes of prototypical group members
  (e.g. Nick Hornbys account)
• Individuals behave less as individuals and more
  as group members
• May result in the expression of values and
  behaviours not normally expressed as individuals
  (Reicher et al., 1985)
• Individual responsibility for actions is reduced
  as anonymity is pronounced in a group situation
  (Mann, 1981)

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Social Identity Theory

• In sports situations violence is seldom seen,
  aggressive behaviours (threats and displays) are
  often sufficient to galvanize ingroup
  cohesiveness and self-esteem
• Stott et al. (2001) examined aggression and
  violence at Euro 2000 association football
  tournament
• Collective aggression determined by context
  (confrontation with outgroup opposition fans)
  and collective norms (shared attitudes towards
  opposition fans)
• Stott (2001) suggests that the relationship
  between collective identity and the environment
  is reciprocal it is partly determined by
  context
• Can result in an escalation of aggressive
  displays which might lead to actual displays of
  violence