Western Civilization I HIS-101

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Western Civilization IHIS-101

• UNIT 1 Origins of Western Civilizations
  (Prehistory to 1700 BCE)

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Stone Age Background

• Pre-History started roughly 3-4 million years
  ago
• Early man and archeological evidence
• Tool-making hominids appear about 2 million years
  ago
• Paleolithic Period (c. 2.5 million years ago -
  8,000 BCE)
• Heidelberg Man (600,000-400,000 years ago)
• Deliberately buried their dead
• Neanderthal Man (30,000-200,000 years ago)
• Possibility of abstract thought
• Upper Paleolithic Age (c. 40,000 -11,000BCE)
• Homo sapiens sapiens
• Finely crafted tools
• Cave paintings at Lascaux

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• Paleolithic Cave Painting at Lascaux

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Upper Paleolithic Age

• Period of the Ice Age
• Temperatures in the Mediterranean averaged around
  60F in the summer and 30F in the winter
• There was a jump in human advancement
• Sophisticated figurative artwork
• Evidence of religious beliefs
• More effective tools like fish hooks, sewing
  needles, and arrowheads
• Humans lived in hunter-gatherer societies
• Small bands of people, constantly moving in
  search of food

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Paleolithic or Old Stone Age

• Characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies
• They lacked material wealth
• There were no societal hierarchies
• All were hunters and gatherers
• Internal struggles would lead to fragmentation
• There was a lack of specialization
• By the end of the Ice Age, the larger game herds
  left the Near East region
• The warmer, wetter conditions were ideal for wild
  grains to grow

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Neolithic or New Stone Age

• Neolithic Period (11,000 to 4,000 BCE)
• Intense social and technological development
• Development of managed food production
  (agriculture)
• Included the domestication of plants and animals
• Gradual process with revolutionary consequences
• In the west, it started in the Fertile Crescent
• Surplus food and storage
• This lead to an increase in population
• Also lead to development of animal domestication

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Neolithic or New Stone Age

• Beginning of permanent and semi-permanent
  settlements
• This led to the rise of villages and small cities
• This helped to stabilize society
• There was the rapid intensification of trade
• Exchange of commodities and new ideas
• Increase in wealth
• Social stratification
• Rise of a new class of social elites
• There was also the rise of specialization
• Included the rise of priestly class

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• Neolithic cutlery and foodstuffs found in
  Switzerland

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Civilization

• Civilization
• A complex culture in which large numbers of human
  beings share a number of common elements
• Emerged between 6,500 to 3,000 BCE
• Historians disagree as to why it came about
• Developed independently in Mesopotamia, Egypt,
  India, and China
• Challenge and Response theory
• Challenges forced human beings to make the
  necessary efforts that led to the rise of
  civilization
• This could be due to material forces surpluses
  such as food
• Or it could be due to non-material forces such as
  religion

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Civilization

• Characteristics of civilization
• Development of agricultural skills
• Rise of specialization
• A division of labor
• Urban revolution
• New political structures including government
  bureaucracies and militaries
• Distinct religious structures
• Advanced technical skills were developed,
  including the use of bronze tools
• Complex economies, including long-distance trade
• New social structures based on economic power
• Development of writing

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Civilization in Mesopotamia

• Located in the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys
• Desert region
• River flood enriches the soil near the rivers
• Flooding was very unpredictable
• Development of irrigation systems
• Governments were theocracies
• Priests and priestesses had great power
• Temples owned much of the city land and livestock
• Over time, they had to share their power with
  kings
• The kings received their power from the gods and
  they were seen as agents of the gods

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Civilization in Mesopotamia

• Economy was primarily agricultural
• Industry and commerce rose in importance as well
• Foreign trade was primarily a royal monopoly
• Traded such goods as wool, barley, wheat, copper,
  tin, aromatic woods, fruit trees
• Mesopotamian society was broken into three
  classes
• Nobles
• This included royal and priestly officials and
  their families
• Commoners (free citizens)
• 90 of population were farmers
• Slaves
• The richest people tended to own the most and
  talented slaves

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• The Sumerians

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Sumerians (c. 6000 to 2500 BCE)

• The Sumerians inhabited southern Mesopotamia
• Ubaid Period (5900-4300 BCE)
• Sophisticated irrigation systems
• Intense temple-building
• Development of a religious structure
• Included the rise of a priestly class
• Priests were responsible for managing economic
  resources
• Uruk Period (4300-2900 BCE)
• The first city-states start to develop
• Temple building more prominent and elaborate
• Writing also developed during this period

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• Sumerian clay ball with tokens

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Development of Writing

• Token and ball system
• Objects would be represented with clay tokens
• Would then be used in a transaction
• This was later replaced with writing on clay
  tablets
• Pictographs
• Earliest writing systems
• Symbols that resembled the physical object they
  represented
• Evolved into representing ideas as well as
  objects
• Eventually represented a particular phonetic
  sound

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Development of Writing

• Cuneiform (c. 3100 BCE)
• Abstract writing
• Used a durable reed stylus
• Cuneus Wedge shaped impression in clay
• Symbols became more and more abstract
• Used for every possible consonant-vowel
  combination
• It was difficult to master and took years to
  learn
• Houses of the Tablet

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• Evolution of writing

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• Cuneiform tablet
• c. 2300 BCE

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Early Dynastic Period (2900-2350 BCE)

• Period of constant warfare between the
  city-states
• Cities grew in size from 10,000 to over 50,000
  people
• This made competition for resources more intense
• Rise of war leaders (lugals)
• Held the status of king
• Acted as both secular and religious figures
• They led the armies of their gods into battle
• It was important to them to remain in their gods
  favor
• Replaced the priests as the leaders of the
  communities
• Because of constant warfare, no one lugal became
  dominant

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• Statue of a man worshiping
• Early Dynastic Period (c.2750-2600BCE)

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Sumerian Religion

• Religion played a major role in the Sumerian
  city-states
• Sumerian pantheon included around 1,500 gods
• Each city felt that their city was the property
  of one particular god or goddess
• Therefore, they sought to glorify by exalting
  their own city
• The physical environment had a major impact on
  how the Sumerians viewed the world
• Massive floods, heavy downpours, oppressive
  humidity, and scorching winds
• Suffered from the famines that resulted from
  these disasters
• According to Sumerian myth, humans were created
  to do the manual labor the gods were unwilling to
  do themselves

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Sumerian Religion

• They were afraid of being punished by the gods if
  they did not worship and praise them enough
• They sought to appeaseor not be punished bythe
  gods
• Performed rituals and sacrifices
• Land of No Return
• Development of divination
• They wanted to discover what the gods were going
  to do
• Believed the gods would give some sort of sign or
  omen
• Rituals and prayers were developed to influence
  the gods and ward off demons
• However, the only people who knew these rituals
  and prayers were the priests

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Sumerian Technology and Trade

• They learned how to smelt tin and copper into
  bronze which ushered in the Bronze Age (c. 3000
  BCE)
• They used the wheel for transport
• Oldest known wheel in Mesopotamia dated to c.
  3,500 BCE
• Were used for two-wheel chariots and four-wheel
  carts
• Development of math system
• Based on 60, using combinations of 6 and 10 for
  practical solutions
• Used multiplication and division and created
  tables for the computation of interest
• Geometry was used for building domes and arches

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Sumerian Technology and Trade

• The Sumerians developed astronomy
• They charted the chief constellations
• Development of a lunar calendar
• Had 354 days based on a 12 month lunar year
• An extra month was added to bring it into sync
  with the solar year
• They also developed a complex trade system
• They traded for raw materials that they did not
  possess
• They built trade routes throughout the
  Mesopotamian region
• Expanded to the Persian Gulf and the
  Mediterranean

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• Akkadian Empire
• c. 2300 BCE

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Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE)

• Akkadians
• From Mesopotamia but north of Sumer
• They had been influenced by the Sumerians
• Shared similar cultures but each retained their
  own language
• Sumerians considered the Akkadians to be
  outsiders and barbarians
• Sargon (c. 2334-2279 BCE)
• The leader of the Akkadians
• According to legend, as a baby a gardener found
  him floating down a river in a basket

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• Bust believed to be of Sargon of Akkad

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Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE)

• Sargon was best known for being the first person
  to unify the Sumerian city-states
• He did this by conquering them and adding them to
  his own empire
• He established a new dynastic empire
• Included Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean
• Placed fellow Akkadians in power as governors of
  the cities
• Exploited the already developed trade routes to
  strengthen the base of his empire
• His economic influence stretched as far away as
  Ethiopia and India

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Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE)

• Naram-Sin (2255 2219 BCE)
• He continued the expansion of the empire
• He was a promoter of culture and a patron of the
  arts
• He also claimed to be the god of Agade (Akkad)
• He was followed by a group of three weak
  successors who were unable to preserve the empire
• The reasons why the Akkadians were successful
• Shared almost everything with the Sumerians
  except language
• Respected the Sumerian religion and gods
• Were able to create a unified government where
  the Sumerians were unable to

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• Naram-Sins victory stele (Louvre)

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Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100-1900 BCE)

• Ur-Nammu of Ur (2047-2030 BCE)
• Modeled his kingship on Sargon and Naram-Sin
• Pursued military conquests and centralizing the
  government
• Code of Ur-Nammu
• Earliest legal code
• Required the payment of fines for most crimes
• Shulgi (2029-1982 BCE)
• He continued the successful empire
• Built the Great Ziggurat of Ur
• Ibbi-Sin (1963-1940 BCE)
• He was too weak to rule
• This marked the decline of the Ur dynasty

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• Reconstructed façade for the Great Ziggurat of Ur

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Third Dynasty of Ur (2100-2000 BCE)

• Sumerian Renaissance
• The Ur dynasty brought about a renaissance in
  culture
• However, this did not have a lasting effect on
  the region
• Other groups would have more of an influence in
  the region over the next 1,500 years
• The Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2000 BCE)
• Earliest known piece of literature
• It was based on a series of poems written
• Gilgamesh was the legendary king of Uruk (c. 2700
  BCE)
• Tales about military conquest and heroism
• Gilgamesh v. Enkidu city v. wilderness
• Pessimistic toward natural environment

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• Old Babylonian Empire

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Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE)

• Babylon was a small city-state in central
  Mesopotamia
• It was controlled by the Amorites
• Location between rivers gave it great economic
  and military significance
• Also between two powerful Amorite cities
• Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE)
• He was the sixth king of Babylon
• One of the first rulers to conquer through
  diplomacy rather than sheer force
• Part of his strategy was through diplomacy and
  writing

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• Hammurabi
• (1792-1750 BCE)

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Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE)

• Hammurabi organized all of Babylonia under Marduk
• Marduk was the god of Babylon
• Still respected the other gods but Marduk was the
  dominant god of the empire
• Used Marduks supremacy over the other gods as
  his justification to rule
• Code of Hammurabi
• A collection of laws used throughout his empire
• Contained 282 laws which regulated peoples
  relationships throughout Mesopotamia
• Based on actual rulings handed down by Hammurabi

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• The Code of Hammurabi

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The Code of Hammurabi

• The Code was probably never intended to be a code
  of laws in the modern sense
• Was used as propaganda to publicize the kings
  devotion to justice
• It reveals a society with strict justice
• Lists three classes the elite, the masses, and
  slaves
• Penalties were severe but they were adjusted
  based on the social class of the parties involved
• Reflected issues and responsibilities the
  government had to deal with
• This included slavery, land tenure, commerce,
  consumer protection, and marriage

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The Code of Hammurabi

• Punishments for crimes varied according to ones
  social class
• Crimes against the upper class were punished more
  severely
• Crimes against the lower class were punished more
  leniently
• Old Babylonian Society
• Upper class nobles controlled large estates and
  wealth
• Below the nobles, an enormous class of legally
  free individuals
• Dependents of the palace or temple
• Laborers, artisans, small merchants, farmers and
  officials
• At the bottom were the slaves
• In general, the slaves were treated harshly
• Slaves acquired through trade or captured in war

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Development of Civilization in Egypt

• The Nile River was of central importance to
  Egyptian civilization
• Annual flooding of the Nile created miles of
  fertile land for growing crops
• Egyptian civilization developed along very
  different lines than Mesopotamia
• Annual flooding of the Nile was predictable
• Land around the Nile did not require extensive
  irrigation
• State intervention was not necessary for food
  production so the villages remained small and
  rural

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Development of Civilization in Egypt

• Nile River valley was protected by natural
  barriers
• Desert to the east and west
• Rapids (cataracts) to the south
• Gave a sense of isolation and security
• Still had access to the Mediterranean to the
  north so they were not any trade barriers for
  Egyptians
• The Nile became the unifying factor for Egypt
• The fastest way to travel throughout the land
• Made transportation and communication much easier
• Because of the stability and reliability of the
  Nile, the Egyptians had a sense of security and
  changelessness

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• Figurine of a woman from predynastic Egypt
• c.3500-3400BCE

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Predynastic Egypt (10,000 3100 BCE)

• The period prior to the emergence of the pharaohs
• Agriculture did not emerge until 5,000 BCE
• The Nile valley region was able to supply an
  abundance of food for long periods of time
• Increased population
• The first cities appeared in Upper Egypt around
  3,200 BCE, all near the Nile
• Sophisticated fortifications
• Elaborate temples
• Attracted industry and travelers
• High degrees of social specialization
• Rivalry developed between Upper and Lower Egypt

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• Narmer Palette
• c. 3100 BCE

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Organization of Egyptian History

• Manetho (c. 3rd century BCE)
• Set the basic framework for Egyptian history
• In his Aegyptiaca, he divided the rulers by
  dynasties
• Today, Egyptian history is divided into three
  major periods
• Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms
• These were periods were each marked with
• Long-term stability with strong monarchical
  authority and competent administrations
• Construction of temples and pyramids
• Freedom from invasion
• Intellectual and cultural activities
• Between the periods are Intermediate Periods
• Characterized by political chaos, rivalries, and
  invasions

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Archaic Period (3100c. 2686 BCE)

• By c. 3100 BCE, Upper and Lower Egypt were
  unified by King Narmer
• Started the first dynasty
• Archaic Period is characterized by
• Administrative capital at Memphis (Lower Egypt)
• First dynastic rulers came into being
• Pharaohs were considered divine, not just
  received divine favor
• Earliest rulers were seen as the earthly
  manifestation of Horus, the falcon god
• Development of hieroglyphics
• These were priest-carvings or sacred writings
  developed during the first two dynasties
• They were pictographs that had a sacred value

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Archaic Period (3100c. 2686 BCE)

• Hieroglyphics were only used by the royal family
  and the priest class
• A more simple, faster, cursive script (Hieratic
  Script ) was used for everyday business of
  government and commerce
• First writings were carved in stone
• Later the Egyptians made paper out of papyrus
  reed
• The first uses of papyrus came during the First
  Dynasty
• The ability to translate hieroglyphics came about
  with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799
• It contained three different forms of writing
  hieroglyphs, demotic, and classical Greek

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• The Rosetta Stone

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• Close up of the hieroglyphics

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Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)

• Includes the 3rd through 6th Dynasties
• Unable to reconstruct an accurate history of this
  period
• So few documents exist to piece together a
  complete history
• Pharaohs were viewed as gods and were absolute
  rulers
• However, the pharaoh was required to follow the
  Maat
• This was a general concept of morality, law, and
  justice
• Pharaohs were divine instruments that were to
  maintain order and harmony
• Subjects were to obey the king to help keep the
  cosmic order

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Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)

• Pharaohs had a well-developed bureaucracy to help
  them run the empire
• During this period, pharaohs were involved more
  in religious matters than political ones
• A vizier was in charge of administration
• This included justice, public works, police, etc.
• The pharaohs also appointed provincial governors
• They were known as nomarchs
• Tended to be family members of the pharaoh
• Pharaoh had to keep tight reins on them to keep
  them from establishing a power base in their
  provinces (nomes)

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Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)

• An age of prosperity and splendor
• This is illustrated by the building of the great
  pyramids
• The pyramids were built as part of a city of the
  dead
• It included a large pyramid for the pharaoh
• Smaller pyramids for his family
• Contained all the articles a person would need
  for the after-life
• Included furniture, weapons, and food
• The original pyramids began as mastabas
• These were rectangular structures with flat roofs
  that served as tombs

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• An Egyptian Mastaba

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Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)

• Why did the Egyptians build such elaborate tombs?
• The Egyptians believed that people had two
  bodies a physical one and a spiritual one (ka)
• By preserving the body through mummification, the
  ka could return to it
• The tomb was furnished with goods from everyday
  life to help the ka resume its life after death
• Mummification was a process of slowly drying out
  and preserving a body to prevent it from rotting
• The Egyptians first used mummification c. 3000
  BCE
• It was not perfected until the New Kingdom

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Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)

• Process of mummification
• First the intestines, stomach, lungs, and liver
  would be removed and placed in a special jar
  (canopic jars)
• The heart would remain inside the body because
  that was needed for the weighing of the heart
• The brain was then removed through the nose with
  a special tool
• Salt would be placed on the body to absorb
  moisture
• The body would then be filled with spices and
  wrapped in layers of resin-soaked linen
• The whole process from start to finish would take
  approximately 70 days
• Mummification of pharaohs and their queens
  usually took the longest

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• The Step Pyramid

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Step Pyramid

• The Step Pyramid was built during the 3rd Dynasty
  during the reign of King Djoser (c. 2630 BCE)
• It was designed by Imhotep, a priest of
  Heliopolis
• He probably designed it by building one mastaba
  on top of another
• The first real pyramid was built during the 4th
  Dynasty (c. 2600 BCE)
• Each side was filled in to make a flat sloped
  surface
• Built during the reign of King Snefru
• He went on to build a total of three pyramids

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• Great Pyramid at Giza

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Great Pyramid at Giza

• This was built c. 2540 BC by King Snefrus son,
  King Khufu
• Contains three pyramids
• Covers a total of 13 acres
• Great Pyramid is 756 feet on each side of its
  base and stands 481 feet high
• Its four sides are almost precisely oriented to
  each of the four points of the compass
• Recent research suggests that small groups of
  skilled workers were used in the construction
• In the case of the Great Pyramid, between 20,000
  to 30,000 people were used and it took
  approximately 20 years to build
• Number of workers were reduced during the growing
  season

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• What the Great Pyramid would have looked like

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Ancient Egyptian Society

• Four social classes
• Pharaoh or god-king
• Upper Class
• Nobles and priests
• Middle Class
• Merchants, artisans, and craftspeople
• Peasants
• Largest percentage of the population
• They worked the kings lands, and building
  projects, paid taxes in the forms of crops, and
  provided military service
• Slaves
• Typically captives of foreign wars but they did
  have legal rights, including the right to own
  personal property

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• Osiris and Isis

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Egyptian Religion

• Egyptian religion was polytheistic
• They had over 150 gods in their pantheon
• Henotheistic Worshipped mainly one god but
  recognize many others
• One of the most important deities was Osiris
• Egyptians believed that Osiris was the one who
  brought civilization to Egypt
• According to the myth, Osiris was killed by his
  brother Seth, who then cut his body into 14
  pieces and threw those into the Nile
• Isis, his wife, found the pieces and restored him
  to life

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Egyptian Religion

• Because of this, Osiris became a symbol of
  resurrection and the judge of the dead in
  Egyptian religion
• When a person was died, he was mummified and
  given the name Osiris so he could be reborn
• Celebrations were held each year for the flooding
  of the Nile to symbolize Isis gathering Osiris
  parts and the start of new life
• The Egyptians did not have a negative view of the
  afterlife like the Mesopotamians had
• They saw death as a necessary step to the
  afterlife
• They believed the afterlife was to be better than
  their current lives

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Egyptian Religion

• The Egyptians a positive viewpoint not only of
  the afterlife, but their current lives as well
• They believed they lived in a stable,
  paradise-like universe, governed by the Maat
• They were connected to their gods through their
  pharaoh
• Elaborate rituals took place when a death
  occurred
• This included embalming and mummification as well
  as burying items with the deceased
• A Book of the Dead was also buried with the
  corpse
• It contained information that the deceased would
  need to know for the afterlife
• This included spells, incantations, and
  preparations for the ultimate test the weighing
  of the heart

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Egyptian Religion

• Weighing of the Heart
• When a person died, he met with Osiris and other
  deities to weigh his heart against a feather
• The feather itself represented the Maat
• The heart would be weighed by Anubis, the god of
  the dead and mummification
• If it was balanced, the deceased could move on
• If the heart was too heavy, Ammut (Devourer of
  the Dead) was there to eat the deceased

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• Weighing of the heart from the Book of the Dead

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Old Kingdom Science and Technology

• Astronomy was based on the sun
• Their solar calendar was more accurate than the
  Mesopotamians lunar one
• It was later adopted by Julius Caesar
• Developed irrigation and water control systems
• Did not develop the wheel until much later
• This was because of the number of workers
  available so there was no need for it
• There was no written legal code
• Whatever the pharaoh proclaimed was law

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End of the Old Kingdom

• Several problems led to the end of the Old
  Kingdom
• Period of the 5th and 6th Dynasties
• During this time, nomarchs grew in power
• Part of this was due to their positions becoming
  hereditary
• The nomes became more independent and the central
  authority of the pharaoh weakened
• Peoples loyalty switch from the pharaohs to the
  nomarchs
• Egypt also was plagued with famines at this time
• Low Nile flooding led to crop failures and
  economic decline
• People blamed the pharaoh for disrupting the Maat

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End of the Old Kingdom

• Because of all of these problems, the priesthood
  of Ra at Nekhen demoted the pharaohs
• They were transformed from being an incarnation
  of Horus and Ra to the lowly position of being
  the son of a god
• This was done in order to wrest power away from
  weaker pharaohs
• The nomarchs then used the situation to seize
  control
• Many saw them and priests as the only ones who
  could guarantee stability and order

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First Intermediate Period (2160-2055 BC)

• Included the 7th through 11th Dynasties
• During this period, a unified country no longer
  existed
• Divided into Upper and Lower Egypt
• Rival dynasties were created with new centers of
  power
• Thebes in Upper Egypt
• Henen-nesut in Lower Egypt
• It was not until 2055 BC that Egypt was reunified
• King Mentuhotep, King of Thebes (Upper Egypt),
  defeated the rulers of Lower Egypt and then
  declared that he was ruler of all Egypt
• His reign marks the beginning of the Middle
  Kingdom

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• Stele of Amenemhat I (c. 1938 BCE)

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Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE)

• The Middle Kingdom period contained the 11th
  through 13th dynasties
• The 12th Dynasty (1991-1802 BCE) was the dominant
  dynasty during this period
• This was considered the golden age for Egypt
• During this time, nomes were restructured
• They were given permanent boundaries and the
  position of nomarch was officially made
  hereditary
• On the other hand, the nomarchs were required to
  know what their duties were and perform them
  accordingly

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Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE)

• This was also a period of expansionism
• Egyptian forces conquered parts of Nubia to the
  south and built fortresses to protect its new
  borders
• They started expeditions into Palestine and Syria
• Pharaohs began embracing the idea of a co-regency
• It was first set up by Amenemhet I (1991-1962
  BCE)
• He made his son as a co-ruler to prepare him for
  his future position
• This was designed to prevent any succession
  problems or inept rulers
• He was killed by the royal bodyguards in 1962 BCE

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Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE)

• Egypt became more cynical during this period
• There was a change in the perception of the
  pharaoh
• The pharaohs were no longer seen as inaccessible
  god-kings who were higher than the people
• Having maat was not enough
• Pharaoh had to protect his people, he was seen as
  a shepherd to protect his flock
• Pharaohs no longer trusted those around them
• After the assassination of Amenemhat, even the
  pharaohs became cynical
• They began writing letters to their successors
  warning them of the constant threats and not to
  expect any loyalty from the people