Western Civilization I HIS-101

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Western Civilization IHIS-101

• UNIT 2 - Gods And Empires In The Ancient Near
  East (1700-500 BCE)

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Rising Powers of the Near East

• The first half of the 2nd millennium BCE was a
  time of transition and constant warfare
• This was due to numerous Indo-European tribes
  moving into the Near East as well as Semitic
  tribes
• By the beginning of the late Bronze Age
  (1500-1200 BCE), there were a number of major
  powers in the Near East
• Anatolia was a region that was full of natural
  resources
• Previous civilizations had not take advantage of
  this
• The area had been ruled by Cappadocians but were
  not organized like other civilizations

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Rise of Anatolia

• Assyrians moved into Anatolia around1900 BCE
• Created a vast trade network into region and take
  advantage of the resources available
• Did not seek military gains
• Had a profound impact
• The became advisors to the Cappadocian kings
• They also married into Cappadocian families
• They brought Mesopotamian civilization and
  urbanization with them
• The Hittites moved into central Anatolia c. 2000
  BCE
• Their city-states remained independent until 1700
  BCE

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Rise of Anatolia

• Hittite Old Kingdom (c. 1700-c.1500 BCE)
• It was a very militaristic styled culture
• Hattusilis I (c.1650c.1620 BCE)
• Expanded the frontiers throughout the Anatolian
  Plateau
• Controlled trade routes as a way to expand the
  kingdoms economic capabilities
• Kingdom of a Thousand Gods
• Mursilis I (c. 1620c. 1590 BCE) continued on the
  success
• Expanded the kingdom further into Syria and even
  into Mesopotamia
• Sacked the city of Babylon c.1595 BCE, leaving it
  in ruins

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• Hittites were one of the first civilizations to
  use war chariots on a widespread basis

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Kassites

• Kassites moved into southern Mesopotamia in c.
  2000 BCE
• Historians believe they had migrated from the
  Zagros Mountains in modern Iran
• Created the Middle Babylonian Kingdom
  (c.1531-c.1155 BCE)
• This was after the city of Babylon had been
  sacked by Hittites
• Lack of Kassite records from the time period
• They did trade extensively with the Assyrians,
  Hittites, and Egyptians
• They brought peace and prosperity into the region

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Mitanni

• Mitanni set up their kingdom in northern
  Mesopotamia (c. 1500-1360 BCE)
• They were master horse trainers
• Used horses as new innovation in warfare
• This included light, horse-drawn chariots that
  would carry archers into battle
• They also developed excellent cavalry tactics
• Kingdom went into a decline after a renewed
  attack by the Hittites
• The Hittites left the Mitanni Kingdom in tact to
  serve as a buffer between them and the Assyrians

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• Coffin cover of King Intef VIII
  Sekhemreherhermaat
• 17th Dynasty
• (??? 1566 BCE)

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Second Intermediate Period

• Second Intermediate Period (c. 1783-1550 BCE)
• Due to the weak control of 13th and 14th
  Dynasties rulers
• Military became disorganized
• Hyksos invaded the delta region (c. 1750 BCE)
• Unknown origins
• Might be of western Asiatic descent
• Hyksos was derived from heka khasewet, meaning
  foreign rulers
• This led to more instability in the region
• The nomes in Upper Egypt declared independence
• The Nubians to the south also broke free from
  Egyptian control

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Second Intermediate Period

• Upper Egypt remained under Egyptian control
• Hyksos took full control of Lower Egypt in 1663
  BCE
• Adopted Egyptian traditions to legitimatize their
  rule
• Made some significant cultural improvements
• Introduced bronze as a new and improved metal for
  making weapons and tools
• Made improved weapons such as a heavier sword and
  a compound bow
• Introduced horse-drawn war chariots
• Egyptians used new technologies to overthrow the
  Hyksos
• Led by Ahmose I, who started the 18th Dynasty
  c.1550

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• Ahmose I Battling the Hyksos

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New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE)

• New Kingdom Egypt was composed of the 18th
  through 20th Dynasties
• There were significant changes to the Egyptian
  style of government
• There was a new militaristic attitude
• It was characterized by constant invasions and
  war campaigns (defense through offense)
• Pharaohs themselves were trained as military
  leaders and spent time on campaigns
• Rise of a new group warrior aristocracy
• Made up of war commanders who grew accustomed to
  working independently
• Wealth acquired through war

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New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE)

• Pharaoh lost power to three strong institutions
• War Nobility
• Royal Bureaucracy
• Priesthood
• 18th Dynasty (1550-1292 BCE)
• Characterized by military expansion, imperialism
  and prosperity
• Included some of the most powerful pharaohs in
  history
• Ahmose I (1550-1525 BCE)
• He conquered the Hyksos and reunified Egypt
• Also brought Nubia back under Egyptian control

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New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE)

• Thutmose I (c.1504-1492 BCE)
• Major military leader
• Mastered the strategy of defense through offense
• Learned tactics from the Hyksos
• Nubian Rebellion
• Thutmose led a campaign to defeat them
• During the battle, the King of Nubia was killed
• Thutmose supposedly hung the body from the prow
  of his ship
• Led campaigns down south to the Fourth Cataract
• Drove to the Euphrates and into Syria and
  Palestine
• He held more territory than any other pharaoh
  before him

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• New Kingdom Egypt

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• Hatshepsut and Thutmose III

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Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE)

• Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE)
• She had been Thutmose IIs Great Royal Wife
• Was regent for her stepson Thutmose III
• She become the first female pharaoh
• Technically co-ruled with Thutmose III
• She embraced all aspects of being pharaoh
• Adopted a Horus name
• Dressed in pharaonic regalia (including a false
  beard)
• Was addressed as His Majesty
• She had a very prosperous reign
• Her reign witnessed extensive building projects
• Including her temple at Deir el Bahri

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Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE)

• Hatshepsut died in 1458 BCE
• Her cause of her death was unknown until recently
• There had been no record of it
• Historians had proposed both natural causes and
  murder
• In 2007, her mummy was positively identified by
  DNA
• Her death was caused by an abscessed tooth
• Damnatio memoriae (Erasing from history)
• After her death, many of her monuments were
  either defaced or destroyed
• Historians are mixed as to who and why someone
  did this
• Many suspect it was either Thutmose III or his
  son Amenhotep II
• They speculate that Thutmose did it either as
  revenge or was used as a way for either of them
  to legitimize their reigns

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• Hatshepsuts family tree

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Thutmose III and Amenhotep II

• Thutmose III (1479-1425 BCE)
• Considered one of the greatest pharaohs in
  Egyptian history
• Over the course of his life, he conducted 17
  military campaigns
• He captured over 350 cities
• He conquered Syria and defeated the Mitanni
• He also expanded Egypt south as far as the Fourth
  Cataract in Nubia
• Amenhotep II (1427-c.1400 BCE)
• In his military campaigns, his priority was to
  maintain his fathers conquests
• He did not push for the same sort of expansion
  Egypt had during his fathers reign

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• Akhenaten
• (1352-1336 BCE)

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Rise of Amun-Ra

• Religious changes during the 18th Dynasty
• Main deity was Amun-Ra
• Amun gained in popularity after the expulsion of
  the Hyksos
• Patron deity of the city of Thebes which was home
  to the pharaohs
• Was viewed as the protector of the rights of the
  poor
• Eventually, he was identified with the chief
  deity, Ra-Herakhty (combination of Ra and Horus)
• This led to the transformation of Amun into
  Amun-Ra
• This also led to his representation of Amun into
  the hidden aspect of the solar deity (night)
  while Ra was the visible one (day)
• The priesthood of Amun-Ra was incredibly powerful

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Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)

• Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)
• His original name was Amenhotep IV (Amun is
  Pleased)
• Attempted to bring monotheism to Egypt
• Akhenaten followed Aten as his main deity
• Aten was the sun disc itself
• It was always drawn as light or sun rays and not
  in human form
• Changed his name to Akhenaten (the effective
  spirit of Aten)
• As part of his religious changes
• Built a new capital Akhetaten (the horizon of
  the Aten)
• Recognized Aten as the only true god (monotheism)
• Closed down the temples of other gods

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Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)

• Why did he switch away from Amun to Aten?
• He may have been a revolutionary intellectual
• He broke the bounds of tradition (worshiping
  Amun-Ra) by using insight and imagination to
  create a new cult of Aten
• He may have been reactionary, upset by the
  blending of two gods, Amun and Ra, into one god
• He may have just been a typical politician
• He wanted to weaken the strength and influence of
  Amuns priests by bringing in a new religious
  regime
• His attempt at religious change was a failure
• Most Egyptians were unwilling to change their
  beliefs
• The priesthood of Amun put up strong resistance
  as well

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Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)

• Akhenaten was not interested in military affairs
  nor foreign policy
• Many revolts broke out in Egyptian controlled
  lands
• He fell out of favor with a number of important
  leaders
• All of this led to a loss of support by the
  military nobility
• Ironically, a serious pandemic started in Egypt
• It could have been the plague, polio, or
  influenza
• Some saw this as a sign that the cosmic order was
  out of whack and blamed the pharaoh for this
• With his death, Aten fell out of favor
• Amun-Ra became the primary deity once again

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• Tutankhamun
• (1333-1324 BCE)

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Tutankhamun (1333-1324 BCE)

• Tutankhamun was 9 years old when he took the
  throne
• He was originally named Tutankhaten (living
  image of Aten)
• It was changed it to Tutankhamun (living image
  of Amun)
• His main focus was to destroy his fathers work
• Akhentatens monuments were destroyed
• The capital was moved back to Thebes
• During his reign, there was a continued decline
  in Egyptian power
• This was especially true in terms of foreign
  relationships
• His death at the age of 19 is still being studied
• In 2010, after DNA testing done, it is believed
  his death was due to a combination of the leg
  injury and severe malaria

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International System

• From 1500 to 1200 BCE, a complex system of trade
  and diplomacy developed
• During this time, there was a move from military
  expansionism and war to a more stable, peaceful
  co-existence
• Leaders realized that wars were too costly
• It was more favorable for them to be at peace and
  have trade channels open
• As part of his diplomacy, leaders would
  correspond with one another
• A standard set of written etiquette was used
• They would also exchange gifts and arrange
  marriages to secure alliances

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International System

• International trade also flourished during this
  period
• Countries were able to sell their goods in far
  markets
• Any type of import was in high demand
• Trade of goods and ideas led to greater
  understanding between cultures
• Increase in trade led to greater dependence on
  goods from other countries
• Countries become mutually dependant on one
  another economically
• This could be disastrous if one countrys economy
  collapsed
• Trade expanded into more unstable regions

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• Minoan Crete

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Aegean Civilization Minoan Crete

• Earliest civilization in the Aegean was found on
  Crete
• Ancient Greek civilization had its roots in
  Minoan civilization
• Minoan civilization was first discovered by Sir
  Arthur Evans in 1900
• Uncovered the palace of Knossos
• Named the culture Minoan after King Minos of
  Greek myth
• The palace at Knossos was built during the
  Neopalatial Period (1700-1450 BCE)
• It was a thalassocracy during the late Bronze Age
• It was a sea empire with a powerful navy
• Participated in expansive overseas trade
  throughout the Mediterranean region

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• A fresco inside Knossos

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Aegean Civilization Minoan Crete

• Developed Linear-A, their written language
• Was not similar to any other written language of
  the time
• Prior to 1600 BCE, the Minoans were more
  sophisticated that the mainland Greeks
• They had a strong influence on the area and most
  likely dominated the Greeks culturally and
  possibly politically
• Around 1450 BCE, Minoan civilization suffered a
  sudden and catastrophic collapse
• Many historians believed that the collapse was
  due to invasions by the mainland Greeks
• However, new evidence is coming about that the
  eruption of nearby Thera had an impact

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Mycenaean Greece

• Though they had been dominated by the Minoans,
  the Greeks started to come into their own around
  1600 BCE
• Mycenaean Greece (1600-1100 BCE)
• Bronze Age or pre-Hellenic Greece
• Individual city-states develop during this time
• They were theocracies headed by a king, who was
  also a war leader
• Mycenaean Greece was a warrior society
• They prided themselves with their warrior deeds
• Artwork of the time included murals of hunting
  and battle scenes
• They expanded their territory through military
  means
• By 1400 BCE, they had invaded Crete and taken the
  palace at Knossos

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Mycenaean Greece

• They adopted many of the aspects of Minoan
  civilization
• They were a thalassocracy
• Transformed the Minoan Linear A alphabet into
  their own Linear Bthe earliest Greek writing
• By the 13th century BCE, Mycenaean Greece was on
  the decline
• It started out as internal conflicts between the
  cities
• By 1100 BCE, Mycenaean culture had ended
• Historians debate the cause of this collapse
• Most believe that it was internal collapse
• Earthquakes, drought, famine, and disease could
  have played a part
• More recently, historians believe it was due to
  the Sea People

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• The Sea People

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The Sea People

• The Sea People
• Began invading the Near East in the 12th century
  BCE
• Historians know very little about this group
• They were most likely displaced refugees who were
  fleeing widespread crop failure and famine
• Their path of destruction started in the north
• Disrupted the trade network of the Aegean region
• Kingdoms faced overpopulation from those fleeing
  Greece
• This led to widespread food shortages and warfare
• Moved into Anatolia and the eastern Mediterranean
  bringing total destruction
• Hittite kingdom was destroyed

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The Sea People

• They eventually came in contact with Egypt
• They attacked during the reign of Ramses III
  (c.1185 BCE) but were quickly defeated both on
  land and at sea
• Nearly completely destroyed Near East
  civilization
• Destroyed the international system
• Destroyed the civilizations of the Mycenaean
  Greece, Hittites, and the Kassites
• Egypt and Assyria went into a long period of
  economic and political decline
• This was mainly due to the loss of their major
  trading partners
• Bronze Age collapse

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• Drawing of relief of the Sea People on Medinet
  Habu temple

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Early Iron Age States

• During the early Iron Age, there are three
  civilizations that develop in the eastern
  Mediterranean
• The Phoenicians, Philistines, and Hebrews
• Phoenicians lived in modern day Lebanon and Syria
• Arrived in the area around 3000 BCE
• Probably came from the Persian Gulf region
• Were best known as traders and colonizers
• The name Phoenicia in Greek means purple people
• This was derived from the valuable purple-red
  dye, Tyrian purple, which was made from the Murex
  snail
• The high point of Phoenician power and culture
  was between 1200-800 BCE

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The Phoenicians

• Prior to 1200 BCE, many Phoenician cities had
  been controlled by Egypt
• With the invasion of the Sea Peoples, the
  Phoenicians were able to wrest free from Egyptian
  control
• Their prosperity was based on an expansion of
  trade routes and accumulation of wealth
• The city of Byblos became the center of papyrus
  trade
• It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited
  cities in the world
• They also built colonies throughout the
  Mediterranean
• The main impact they had was their writing system
• It was created at Byblos and was based on a
  Semitic alphabet
• The Phoenician alphabet was later adapted and
  modified by the Greeks, Romans, and Hebrews

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• Phoenician alphabet in relation to other alphabets

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The Philistines

• The Philistines dominated the eastern
  Mediterranean from 1100-1000 BCE
• They were descended from one of the tribes of the
  Sea People
• Once settled in this region, they grew olive
  trees and grapevines
• They used their profits to raise armies to secure
  their power in the region
• Quickly took power from their weaker, unorganized
  neighbors
• Established monopolies on the economy and
  iron-smithing
• Left no written records
• Our history of them is dependent upon the Hebrew
  histories

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The Hebrews

• Unlike the Philistines, the Hebrews wrote a
  history
• This later became the Hebrew Bible and the Old
  Testament of the Christian Bible
• Written over the course of many centuries
• Many of the works in the first five books of the
  Bible were retellings of old Near East stories
• After that, the information becomes more credible
• In the Book of Judges, the Hebrews started out as
  wandering pastoral tribes
• They were organized into 12 tribes, each ruled by
  a judge
• They settled in the Levant permanently by 1200
  BCE
• Roughly at the same time as the Phillistines

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The Hebrews

• Conflict with the Philistines forced the Hebrews
  to unite
• This led to the crowning of the first king of
  Israel
• Saul (c. 1021-1000 BCE)
• He had been appointed by one of the tribal
  judges, Samuel
• The first part of Sauls reign was successful as
  he defeated the Philistines and drove them out of
  Israel
• However, Saul lost favor with Samuel
• By losing favor, he lost the religious sanctions
  for his battles and popular support
• Samuel decided to put his backing behind David
  instead
• David had been one of Sauls lieutenants
• Saul attempted numerous assassinations against
  David and finally expelled from court

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The Hebrews

• David became an independent mercenary fighter
• He even fought for the Philistines
• He used the profits from raids to help the other
  leaders break free of Sauls control
• Saul and his son were killed in battle in 1000
  BCE
• David (c. 1000-973 BCE)
• He was able to defeat the Philistines and
  captured Jerusalem
• This city was made the political and religious
  capital of Israel
• Solomon - (973-937 BCE)
• He continued to strengthen royal power during his
  reign
• Unfortunately he did so through ruthlessness and
  brutality
• He is best known for his building projects
• Many of his subjects were required to perform
  forced labor

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The Hebrews

• When his son, Rehoboam, came to power, he planned
  on keep up the harsh policies of his father
• In 922 BCE, a rebellion broke out against him and
  the Kingdom of Israel broke away from Judah
• Israel was now divided into two parts
• Kingdom of Israel
• Composed of ten of the original twelve tribes
  with its capital in Samaria
• It was eventually destroyed in 722 by the
  Assyrians
• Kingdom of Judah
• Composed of the other two tribes and had its
  capital at Jerusalem
• It was conquered by the Chaldeans in 586

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The Assyrian Empire

• During most of the 2nd millennium BCE, Assyria
  was not independent
• In the late Bronze Age, they were a dependency of
  the Mitanni
• Their chance for independence came in 1362 BCE
• The Mitanni were occupied with fighting the
  Hittites
• Assur-uballit I (1362-1327 BCE)
• The governor of the city of Assur
• With the help of the Hittites he destroyed the
  Mitanni and declared Assyrian independence
• Later in his reign, he allied with the Kassites
  in Babylon to end Hittite domination in the
  region
• This began the Middle Assyrian Kingdom (1362-859
  BCE)

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Middle Assyrian Kingdom

• Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243-1207 BCE)
• Extended the borders of the Assyrian empire
  through conquest
• Sacked the city of Babylon and took the Kassite
  king into captivity
• When the Babylonians rebelled against
  Tukulti-Ninurta, he ransacked the temples
• He also took the statue of the citys patron
  deity, Marduk, with him
• This was seen as sacrilege to both the
  Babylonians and the Assyrians
• A mob led by his son murdered Tukulti-Ninurta by
  setting his palace on fire and burning him to
  death
• What followed was a long period of Assyrian
  decline as Babylonia expanded in power

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Middle Assyrian Kingdom

• Assurnasirpal II (883-859 BCE)
• He was a brilliant but brutal military leader
• Expanded the borders of the empire to the
  Mediterranean
• He instituted a reign of terror
• If a region did not pay tribute, they would
  suffer the wrath of his army
• Those who opposed them were publicly tortured or
  killed
• Was a brilliant administrator
• Reorganized his government by placing Assyrian
  administrators in the provinces
• He used captives from campaigns to rebuild the
  capital
• He also used them to build temples and monuments
• The end of his reign marked the end of the Middle
  Assyrian Kingdom

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Neo-Assyrian Empire (859-627 BCE)

• Tiglath-Pileser III (744-727 BCE)
• He seized the throne in 744
• Expanded Assyria
• Subjugated Babylonia
• Took Syria and forced leaders to pay tribute
• When he died, many of the newly conquered lands
  revolted
• Historians speculate that they thought Assyria
  would have a weak ruler, as this seemed to be a
  pattern
• Sargon II (722-705 BCE)
• This started one of the most magnificent periods
  in Assyrian history
• He continued to expand Assyria
• He conquering Israel and turned Judah into a
  vassal state
• He also expanded east into Iran

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Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)

• Sargons descendents helped Assyria became the
  dominant power in the Near East
• Why was the Neo-Assyrian Empire so successful in
  its domination of the Near East?
• Not only were the kings powerful but they had
  competent administrations
• Kings were seen as the earthly representative of
  the god Assur
• It had an extensive bureaucracy comprised of
  governors, priests, and military leaders
• Assyrians would be placed in positions of power
  in conquered territories
• They developed a fantastic infrastructure for the
  empire
• They built roads throughout the empire and set up
  a network of posting stations that used relays of
  horses to carry messages

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Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)

• The most important aspect was its military
• There were two key characteristics of the
  military
• Holy war
• As part of the holy war, Assyrian kings believed
  that their expansion was part of a divine mission
  and that it was the will of Assur
• Anybody who did not accept this was considered an
  enemy and conquered
• Reign of terror
• Other cities gods would be humiliated or
  captured and then the conquered cities would
  also be forced to worship Assur
• If the lands did not pay tribute, it would be
  extracted by force
• The Assyrians would even raid conquered areas
  every year to keep the subjects in place

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Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)

• The Assyrian army held over 100,000 members
• It was well organized, disciplined, and diverse
• It contained an infantry, cavalry, and
  horse-drawn war chariots
• It also had specialized units such as language
  interpreters, intelligence officers, and scribes
• They were well-equipped with iron weapons and
  armor
• Because of this diversity, the army was able to
  use a variety of military tactics depending on
  the geography of the area
• Warfare was savage
• Mutilations of prisoners, decapitations, rape,
  and the mass deportations and/or enslavement of
  the civilian population was commonplace

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Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)

• Assyrians were also masters of siege warfare
• Had numerous siege weapons including siege towers
  and battering rams
• Sappers would dig tunnels to undermine the walls
  foundations and cause them to collapse
• Army would cut off supply lines so if the city
  did not fall, they could be starved into
  submission
• Their use of terror as a weapon was highly
  effective
• They laid waste to the land they were fighting by
  setting crops on fire, smashing dams, cutting
  down trees and destroying towns
• They committed atrocities against people,
  especially those who rebelled
• Many prisoners were deported and used for labor

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• Assurbanipal
• (669-627 BCE)

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Decline of the Assyrian Empire

• Assurbanipal (669-627 BCE)
• He was considered the last of the great rulers of
  Assyria
• He was considered an enlightened king as he had
  received a scholarly education since he was not
  first in line for the throne
• Built the great library in Nineveh, the first
  systematically organized library in the ancient
  Near East
• The culture and art of the empire hit its peak
  during his reign
• He continued to solidify and stabilize the empire
  
• He used the same military tactics used by his
  predecessors
• At the time of his death, the empire was at its
  peak
• The borders were secure and the realm was largely
  at peace
• The realm was enjoying a period of cultural glory

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Decline of the Assyrian Empire

• By the end of the 7th century BCE, it was clear
  that the empire was greatly over-extended
• Overexpansion paved the way for internal strife
  between nobles
• There was also a lot of resentment by the
  subjects towards the Assyrians
• A coalition was formed between the Chaldeans,
  Medes (Iran), and other states in Mesopotamia
  against Assyria
• Under the leadership of the Chaldean ruler,
  Nabopolassar, they successfully lead a revolt
  against Assyria in 626 BCE
• They went on to burn down the city of Nineveh in
  612 BCE

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• Neo-Babylonian Empire

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Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE)

• The Chaldeans were successful at breaking free
  from Assyrian control
• Nabopolassar (625-605 BCE)
• Established a new monarchy in Babylonia
• This was known as the Neo-Babylonian Empire
• Nebuchadnezzer (605-562 BCE)
• He achieved the final defeat of the Assyrian
  empire in 605 BCE
• He went conquer of Syria and Palestine
• This included destroying the city of Jerusalem
  and its temple
• Tens of thousands of Hebrews were taken into
  Babylon in exile which became known as the
  Babylonian Captivity

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Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE)

• Nebuchadnezzar's marked a period of prosperity
  for the Babylonians
• Lucrative trading routes throughout Mesopotamia
• Created a lot of industry for textiles and metals
• The city of Babylon became one of the greatest
  cities of ancient times
• He had built the Hanging Gardens, one of the
  seven wonders of the ancient world
• He also had built numerous temples and palaces
• While the Chaldeans did not have as impressive a
  military as Assyria, this empire was not going to
  last as long

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Persian Empire

• Very little is known about the Persians prior to
  the 6th century BCE
• Starting in the mid-8th century, both the Medes
  and the Persians began to form confederations of
  tribes
• Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE)
• While he was a prince, he organized the Persians
  into a single tribe in 559 BCE and made himself
  king
• In 549 BCE, he conquered the Medes
• He made Media the first Persian satrapy or
  province
• He then turned to the kingdom of Lydia in
  Anatolia
• It was rich with numerous gold and silver mines
• King Croesus of Lydia tried to make a preemptive
  strike against Persia but failed

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• Cyrus the Great
• (559-530 BCE)

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Persian Empire

• Next, Cyrus next focused on the kingdom of
  Babylonia
• He was able to take Babylonia in 539 BCE with
  little resistance
• Cyrus turned Babylonia into a Persian satrapy but
  kept many Babylonians in positions of power
• From 538 to 530 BCE, Cyrus concentrated on
  consolidating his empire
• He sought favor from the priesthoods in conquered
  lands
• He did this by restoring temples and allowing a
  large amount of religious toleration
• Through his actions, he won approval the
  conquered nations who accepted him as the
  legitimate ruler
• In 530 BCE, Cyrus was killed in battle

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• Persian conquests during the reign of Cyrus the
  Great

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Persian Empire

• Cambyses II (530-522 BCE)
• He was one of Cyrus sons
• In 525 BCE, he conquered Egypt
• Cambyses died in 522 BCE
• Because he left no heir, an intense civil war
  tore through Persia for a year
• Darius (521-486 BCE)
• During the early part of his reign, revolts broke
  out throughout the empire as many disputed his
  claim to the throne
• Once those were suppressed, he worked to
  strengthen the empire both from the inside and
  out

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• Darius the Great
• (521-486 BCE)

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Persian Empire

• Darius continued Cyrus policy of tolerance
  throughout his empire
• In most cases, the locals were able to retain
  many of their institutions, including religious
  toleration
• Darius reworked the empires infrastructure
• Developed a postal system
• A post acted as a relay stage, with no more
  than one days ride from the next post
• This also included an extensive spy network
• Built the Royal Road which was over 1,600 miles
  long
• Codified a legal system based on Egyptian law
• Standardized coinage, weights, and measures
• Reorganized the empire into twenty satrapies

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Persian Empire

• Darius reorganized of the military
• It composed of people from all parts of the
  empire
• Had four branches to the military
• Infantry
• The Immortals were an elite infantry force of
  10,000
• Cavalry
• Navy which included ships from conquered states
• With his military, Darius expanded Persia even
  farther
• Conquered parts of India to the east
• Conquered Thrace and Macedonia to the west
• Had control of the straights into the Black Sea
• By 500 BCE, Darius was in control of most of the
  Near East

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Zoroastrianism

• Another major contribution the Persians made was
  in terms of religion
• During the 6th century BCE, Persians began to
  follow Zoroastrianism
• Zoroaster (c.628-c.551 BCE) was a Persian holy
  man
• His spiritual revelations led him to develop a
  more humane religion by eliminating animal
  sacrifice and magic
• The main tenet of Zoroastrianism is monotheism
• Ahura-Mazda (the wise lord) was the one supreme
  god
• He embodied and created all that was good
• If Ahura-Mazda embodied only the good, how do you
  explain the bad?

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Zoroastrianism

• Ahriman was the evil counter-deity
• He was the creator of all things evil
• This explained the evil of the world
• Ahura-Mazda gave humans free will to choose
  between right and wrong
• There would be a constant struggle between good
  and evil in which good will win
• It did not focus on the exaltation of one god but
  rather promoted sinless lives, truth, and love
• Zoroaster believed in individual judgment at
  death
• If a person had done good deeds, they would go to
  paradise
• If they did not, they would go to a sort of hell

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• Relief of Ahura-Mazda in Persepolis

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Hebrew Monotheism

• The early Hebrews worshipped many gods
• Yahweh was only one gods worshipped by the
  Hebrews
• Around the 10th century BCE, they focused their
  attention just on Yahweh
• They believed other gods existed but refused to
  worship them (monolatry)
• Yahweh was viewed in a traditional way in that
  his territory was limited to lands occupied by
  the Hebrews
• Historians are unsure of the reasons for such a
  dramatic change
• Around 750 BCE Hebrew theology took another turn
• The transformation to transcendent theology takes
  place
• Yahweh is now seen as omnipotent, no longer
  attached to a physical existence

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Hebrew Monotheism

• Hebrew religion was forced to change during
  Assyrian domination
• Prophets pushed to keep their unique Hebrew
  identity by dropping monolatry and embracing
  monotheism
• The prophets also encouraged the Hebrews to live
  ethical lives
• This also included an end to ritual and sacrifice
• Forced to change again during the Babylonian
  Captivity
• As they were forced to leave the Holy Land, their
  tie to Yahweh needed to changed
• The Prophet Ezekiel stated that states, empires,
  and thrones were not important
• The most important was the relationship between
  God and His people
• This meant that Judaism became a universal
  religion, not one tied to any particular
  political entity or a place

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Hebrew Monotheism

• Many scholars feel that this adaptation of
  religion helped the Hebrew religion survive such
  numerous attacks
• In 538 BCE, Cyrus of Persia allowed the Hebrews
  back into Jerusalem
• He helped rebuild their temple
• With their return to the Holy Land, their worship
  of Yahweh continued
• They believed that humans had obligations to
  their creator rather than it having ties to a
  place or political entity continued