Title: Survey of Modern Psychology
1Survey of Modern Psychology
2Personality
- Personality generally refers to the distinctive
patterns (including thoughts as well as
affects, that is, feelings and emotions and
actions) that characterize each individual
enduringly. - (Mischel, 1999)
3Personality Psychology
- Personality psychology examines a persons traits
that are considered to be consistent across
situations. - Social Psychology focuses on how the situation
causes individuals to behave a certain way - Behavior is seen as primarily a function of the
situation rather than individual characteristics - Personality Psychology emphasizes the importance
of individual differences
4Approaches to Personality
- There are five main approaches to the study and
interpretation of personality - Psychodynamic
- Trait and Biological
- Phenomenological
- (Emphasizes the individual's experience and how
he or she perceives it) - Behavioral
- Social Cognitive-Affective
- Tables from Mischel, 1999
5Causes of Behavior
Psychodynamic Underlying stable motives and their unconscious transformation
Trait and Biological Generalized (consistent, stable) dispositions biochemical (genetic) causes for some (most) dispositions
Phenomenological Self-concepts, feelings and conflicts, attributions, free choices (not mechanistically determined)
Behavioral Prior learning and cues in a situation (including the behavior of others)
Social Cognitive-Affective Reciprocal interaction between person and situation, mediated by the person variables interacting within the Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS
6Behavioral Manifestations of Personality
Psychodynamic Symptoms, mistakes, dreams, fantasies
Trait and Biological Direct signs of traits
Phenomenological Private experiences, perceptions, and interpretations
Behavioral Stable behavior equated with personality
Social Cognitive-Affective Stable patterns of person-situation interactions distinctive configurations of if then relationships (i.e., she does X when Y but she does A when B)
7Preferred Data Sources
Psychodynamic Interpretations by expert judges (clinicians)
Trait and Biological Test responses (on questionnaires) trait ratings, behavior genetics research, twin studies
Phenomenological Self-disclosure and personal constructs (about self and others) self-reports
Behavioral Direct observations of behavior in the target situation
Social Cognitive-Affective Measures of person variables in interaction with one another and relevant situations
8Research Focus
Psychodynamic Personality dynamics and psychopathology unconscious processes defense mechanisms the fragmented self
Trait and Biological Measurement (test construction), description of individual differences and their patterning taxonomy of traits heritability of personality
Phenomenological Self-concepts self-awareness and expression human potential and self-actualization emotion attribution
Behavioral Behavior change analysis of conditions controlling behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective Refining theories about underlying processes and discovering practical implications (for health, for risk prevention in vulnerable individuals)
9Approach to Personality Change
Psychodynamic By insight into motives and conflicts underlying behavior
Trait and Biological Not much concerned with change search for consistent, stable characteristics biochemical treatments for disorders
Phenomenological By increased awareness, personal honesty, internal consistency, and self-acceptance by modifying constructs by alternative construals
Behavioral By changing conditions by experiences that modify behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective By changing underlying person variables (e.g., focusing on alternative possible selves modifying efficacy and outcome expectations and processing dynamics)
10Role of Situation
Psychodynamic Deliberately minimized or ambiguous
Trait and Biological Acknowledged but of secondary interest until recently
Phenomenological As the context for experience and choice focus on the situation-as-perceived
Behavioral Extremely important regulates much behavior
Social Cognitive-Affective Provides psychological cues and information that activate Cognitive-Affective Personality System dynamics and dispositions
11Contradictions in Personality Theory
- Personality is both stable and capable of change
12Contradictions in Personality Theory
- Dispositions and situations are both important
13Contradictions in Personality Theory
- Behavior depends on the social environment
genetic and biological factors are also
foundations of social behavior
14Contradictions in Personality Theory
- People are both consistent and inconsistent
15Contradictions in Personality Theory
- Humans are cognitive and emotional beings
16Contradictions in Personality Theory
- Behavior can be both rational and irrational
17Personality Tests
- Discussion What do you know about personality
tests?
18Personality Tests
- Projective Tests
- Present the individual with material thats open
to interpretation. The tests are based on the
assumption that the responses reveal information
about the respondents personality
19Personality Tests
- Objective/standardized/structured tests
- Materials are standardized and give a structured
set of potential responses (ex. true/false,
always/sometimes/never, dont know, etc.) - Scoring is based on a given set of specific
criteria and is not open to broad interpretation -
20Projective Tests - Rorschach
- Consists of 10 cards with vertically symmetrical
inkblots - The respondent looks at the inkblots one at a
time and is asked to say everything the inkblot
could resemble or look like - The examiner usually asks for details about the
interpretation of the inkblot
21Projective Tests - Rorschach
- Responses are scored based on
- Location (the part of the card that the
respondent refers to) - Physical aspects of the inkblot (shape,
suggestion of movement) - Originality
- Content
- These responses are generally compared to those
of respondents of a similar age group
22Projective Tests - Rorschach
- The examiner interprets the responses as related
to personality, creative capacity, contact with
reality, and anxiety
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25Rorschach Test
- There is debate as to whether the results have
any true meaning - Mixed results on inter-rater reliability
- A more intelligent or creative person may give a
higher number of interpretations, meaning that
theres a higher chance some will be considered
pathological - Cross culturally, different people may focus on
different aspects of the same inkblot
26Rorschach Test
- Often, more can be inferred from how the
respondent verbalizes their response rather than
the answer itself - For example, a more vivid description of the same
image could indicate a higher IQ
27- Factors other than pathology may influence how we
interpret inkblots
28Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
- The test contains a series of picture cards
presented one at a time - It is described as a story telling test, and the
respondent is asked to make up a story for each
picture telling - What led up to the event shown in the picture
- What is happening in the picture at the moment
- What the characters are feeling and thinking
- What is the outcome?
29TAT
- The task is timed from before the respondent
begins the story to the end of the story - It studies how people interpret an ambiguous
stimuli - The themes are assumed to reflect the
respondents underlying conflicts and problems - Results are generally interpreted based on the
clinicians judgments rather than a formal
scoring method
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32TAT
- Images include adults, children, men, women, and
ambiguous figures - Originally, 10 cards were selected out of the
possible 31 and were matched to the respondent
based on age and gender
33Problems with the TAT
- The story a person tells does not necessarily
reflect a permanent inner state - For example, a person who has recently lost a
loved one might tell a sad story with a
bereavement theme because it has recently been on
their mind, not because they are a generally
depressed person
34Problems with the TAT
- Original images were made in the 1930s and had
white people, which may influence the
interpretations for non-white test takers - Some of the images are now considered outdated,
which may bias results - The interpretation of the story is generally
left up to the examiner
35Problems with Projective Tests
- They are open to the interpretation of the
examiner - Does the same response always mean the same
thing? - Its usually easy to fake good or fake bad
36The Big Five
- In research, when people are asked to describe
themselves they tend to cluster their
descriptions around these five categories (on
different points of a spectrum)
37The Big Five
- Neuroticism
- Extraversion
- Openness to Experience
- Agreeableness
- Conscientiousness
38Neuroticism
- Negative emotions, e.g., anxiety, depression
- In this spectrum
- Calm vs. worrying
- Unemotional vs. emotional
- Secure vs. insecure
- Not envious vs. jealous
39Extraversion
- Positive emotionality
- In this spectrum
- Quiet vs. talkative
- Aloof vs. friendly
- Inhibited vs. spontaneous
- Timid vs. bold
40Openness to Experience
- Vs. closed-mindedness
- In this spectrum
- Conventional vs. original
- Unadventurous vs. daring
- Conforming vs. independent
- Unartistic vs. artistic
41Agreeableness
- Vs. antagonism
- In this spectrum
- Irritable vs. good natured
- Uncooperative vs. helpful
- Suspicious vs. trusting
- Critical vs. lenient
42Conscientiousness
- Vs. undirectedness
- In this spectrum
- Careless vs. careful
- Helpless vs. self-reliant
- Lax vs. scrupulous
- Ignorant vs. knowledgeable
43The Big Five
- This list was constructed using Factor Analysis
- Patterns of responses that tend to go together
- Particular adjectives are strongly correlated
with other adjectives those characteristics make
up that particular trait
44The Big Five
- Inter rater reliability tends to be good
- Test-retest reliability is high
45Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI)
- The MMPI is one of the most extensive, popular,
and widely studied personality questionnaires
46MMPI
- Consists of 550 statements
- Gives the answer options of
- True
- False
- Cannot say (undecided)
47MMPI
- The MMPI was originally used to classify
psychiatric patients on multiple dimensions - Items ask about attitudes, emotional reactions,
psychiatric symptoms, the respondent's past, and
more
48MMPI Sample Items
- Sometimes I think I may kill myself
- My greatest troubles are inside myself
- I certainly have little self-assurance
- I wish I were not so awkward
- I am shy
- Questions are purposely vague and do not describe
situations
49Similar Items to MMPI Anxiety Measures
Item High Anxiety Response
I rarely get really tired False
I am not a worrier False
I cannot keep my mind focused on anything True
I almost never blush False
Often I cannot keep from crying True
Its hard for me to attend to a job True
Often I think I am no good True
50MMPI
- The MMPI is sorted into 10 scales with 3 control
scales - Results provide comparisons against norms
(averages) and provide information based on
people who give similar answers
51MMPI 10 Scales
- Hypochondriasis
- Depression
- Hysteria
- Psychopathic Deviate
- Masculinity Femininity
- Paranoia
- Psychasthenia
- Schizophrenia
- Hypomania
- Social Introversion
52MMPI Scales
- Hypochondriasis
- Neurotic concern over bodily functioning
53MMPI Scales
- Depression
- Poor morale, lack of hope in the future, and a
general dissatisfaction with one's own life
situation - High scores may suggest clinical depression
- Lower scores reflect more general unhappiness
with life
54MMPI Scales
- Hysteria
- Extreme reaction to stressful situations
- Often with a 'normal' façade but break down with
stress - People who tend to score higher are often
brighter, better educated and from higher social
classes - Women tend to score higher
55MMPI Scales
- Psychopathic Deviate
- Measures social deviation, lack of acceptance of
authority, dislike of the status quo, and
amorality - Adolescents tend to score higher
- This is part of a normal questioning of authority
as one gets older - Black people often score higher than white
people
56MMPI Scales
- Masculinity Femininity
- Was originally intended to differentiate between
heterosexual and homosexual men - Has not been found to be effective
- Looks at how much a person endorses gender norms
- Extremely high scores for men or women suggest
rejection of traditional gender roles - Well educated and higher socio-economic status
men tend to score higher
57MMPI Scales
- Paranoia
- Paranoid symptoms such as ideas of reference,
feelings of persecution, grandiose self-concepts,
suspiciousness, excessive sensitivity, and rigid
opinions and attitudes.
58MMPI Scales
- Psychasthenia
- Originally characterized by excessive doubts,
compulsions, obsessions, and unreasonable fears - It is now closest to Obsessive Compulsive
Disorder (OCD) - Also shows abnormal fears, self-criticism,
difficulties in concentration, and guilt
feelings
59MMPI Scales
- Schizophrenia
- Originally developed to identify schizophrenics
- Variety of content areas, including bizarre
thought processes and peculiar perceptions,
social alienation, poor familial relationships,
difficulties in concentration and impulse
control, lack of deep interests, disturbing
questions of self-worth and self-identity, and
sexual difficulties - Misinterpretations of reality, delusions, and
hallucinations may be present - Ambivalent or constricted emotional
responsiveness is common - Behavior may be withdrawn, aggressive, or bizarre
- Age, race, and socio-economic status tend to play
a role in scores
60MMPI Scales
- Hypomania
- Tests for elevated mood, accelerated speech and
motor activity, irritability, flight of ideas,
and brief periods of depression
61MMPI Scales
- Social introversion
- Tests for a person's tendency to withdraw from
social contacts and responsibilities - Includes a measure of social participation and
one of general neurotic maladjustment and
self-depreciation
62MMPI 10 Scales
- The scale names are based on the questions
correlations with other indices and do not
necessarily indicate that symptom
63MMPI 3 Control Scales
- Lie scale
- Tendency to lie by faking good
- K Scale
- Defensiveness and trying to appear more socially
desirable - F Scale
- Measure of whether the respondent is answering
items in a careless or confused fashion
64What This Means
- Self-reported answers on personality measures
tend to be stable over time. - However, answers on questionnaires do not
necessarily predict our behavior. - We may consistently rate ourselves the same, but
behave differently.
65What This Means
- Results from the MMPI correlate well with other
appropriate measures - i.e., the anxiety measures correlate well with
other anxiety inventories
66What This Means
- While it is more difficult to fake answers on the
MMPI, the questions are still fairly transparent