Water

1
Chapter 14
Water

• Water

2
Chapter Overview Questions

• Why is water so important, how much freshwater is
  available to us, and how much of it are we using?
• What causes freshwater shortages, and what can be
  done about this problem?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of
  withdrawing groundwater?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of
  using dams and reservoirs to supply more water?

3
Chapter Overview Questions (contd)

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of
  transferring large amounts of water from one
  place to another?
• Can removing salt from seawater solve our water
  supply problems?
• How can we waste less water?
• How can we use the earths water more
  sustainably?
• What causes flooding, and what can we do about it?

4
Core Case Study Water Conflicts in the Middle
East - A Preview of the Future

• Many countries in the Middle East, which has one
  of the worlds highest population growth rates,
  face water shortages.

Figure 14-1
5
Figure 14-1
6
Water Conflicts in the Middle East A Preview of
the Future

• Most water in this dry region comes from the
  Nile, Jordan or Tigris rivers.
• Countries are in disagreement as to who has water
  rights, but there are some agreements.
• Currently, there are no cooperative agreements
  for use of 158 of the worlds 263 water basins
  that are shared by two or more countries.

7

• Nile River-
• 97 of Egypts freshwater
• Shared by Ethiopia, Sudan, Egypt

8

• Jordan River- Shared by Syria, Jordan, Palestine
  (Gaza West Bank), Israel
• Syria pop. will double by 2050
• Syria plans to build dams and withdraw more water
• Israel does cooperate with Jordan Palestine

9
Water Conflicts in the Middle East?

• Tigris Euphrates Rivers- Shared by Turkey,
  Syria, Iraq.

10
Figure 14-1
11
WATERS IMPORTANCE, AVAILABILITY, AND RENEWAL

• Water keeps us alive, moderates climate, sculpts
  the land, removes and dilutes wastes and
  pollutants, and moves continually through the
  hydrologic cycle.
• 71 of Earths surface is covered with water
• Only about 0.024 of the earths water supply is
  available to us as liquid freshwater
• Why is this number so low?

12
WATERS IMPORTANCE, AVAILABILITY, AND RENEWAL

• Comparison of population sizes and shares of the
  worlds freshwater among the continents.

Next
13

Percent of world's water resources and population
Continent
36
Asia
60.5
10
Africa
14
8
Europe
11.3
15
North and Central America
7.3
26
South America and Caribbean
6.4
5
Oceania
0.5
Fig. 14-2, p. 307
14
WATERS IMPORTANCE, AVAILABILITY, AND RENEWAL

• Some precipitation infiltrates the ground and is
  stored in soil and rock (groundwater).
• Water that does not sink into the ground or
  evaporate into the air runs off (surface runoff)
  into bodies of water.
• The land from which the surface water drains into
  a body of water is called its watershed or
  drainage basin.

15
Ground Water
A simplified surficial aquifer Coastal Georgia
-a few feet down -sulfur water
Water Table
Zone of saturation
16

Unconfined Aquifer Recharge Area
Evaporation and transpiration
Evaporation
Precipitation
Confined Recharge Area
Runoff
Flowing artesian well
Recharge Unconfined Aquifer
Stream Well requiring a pump
Water table
Infiltration
Lake
Infiltration
Unconfined aquifer
Less permeable material such as clay
Confined aquifer
Confining impermeable rock layer
Fig. 14-3, p. 308
17
Ground Water Floridan Aquifer
18
Ground Water Springs
19
Ground Water Artesian Wells
Bogue Chitto River, LA
Jasper, SC
20
Ground Water Artesian Wells
The diagram below shows the aquifer system near
Brunswick, Georgia, as it was before development
of the Floridan aquifer system in the 1880s. The
aquifer system was under artesian conditions and
the pressure in the aquifer system was great
enough that wells flowed at land surface
throughout most of the coastal area. In some
areas, pressure was high enough to elevate water
to multi-story buildings without pumping. The
artesian water level (potentiometric surface) was
about 65 feet above sea level at Brunswick.
Ground water discharged naturally to springs,
rivers, ponds, wetlands, and other surface-water
bodies and to the Atlantic Ocean. Nowadays,
ground-water pumping has caused the water level
in the aquifer to decline throughout the entire
coastal area, with the result that some artesian
aquifers no longer have enough pressure to cause
a well to naturally flow to the land surface.
ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/gwartesian.html
21
Ground Water Artesian Wells
ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/gwartesian.html
22
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23
Ground Water Overpumping (overdrafting)
Note The Floridan Aquifer (500-600 feet below
Brunswick) has two saltwater intrusion plumes,
one from the ocean and one from an ancient
saltwater aquifer that underlies it (not shown in
the diagram)
24
Ground Water Artesian Wells
During October 2002, the Durango Paper Company
(formerly Gillman Paper Company) in St. Marys,
Georgia, shutdown paper-mill operations the
shutdown resulted in decreased ground-water
withdrawal in Camden County by 35.6 million
gallons per day. The decrease in withdrawal
resulted in water-level rise in wells completed
in the Floridan aquifer system and the overlying
surficial and Brunswick aquifer systems many
wells in the St. Marys area flowed for the first
time since the mill began operations during 1941.
pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2004/5295/
25
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26
WATERS IMPORTANCE, AVAILABILITY, AND RENEWAL

• We currently use more than half of the worlds
  reliable runoff of surface water and could be
  using 70-90 by 2025.
• Irrigation is the biggest user of water (70),
  followed by industries (20) and cities and
  residences (10).

27
Water in the United States

• Average precipitation (top) in relation to
  water-deficit regions and their proximity to
  metropolitan areas (bottom).

Next
28

Average annual precipitation (centimeters)
Less than 41
81122
More than 122
4181
Fig. 14-4a, p. 309
29

Acute shortage
Shortage
Adequate supply
Metropolitan regions with population greater than
1 million
Fig. 14-4b, p. 309
30
Case Study Freshwater Resources in the United
States

• 17 western states by 2025 could face intense
  conflict over scarce water needed for
• Urban growth
• Irrigation
• Recreation
• Wildlife.

Next
31

Wash.
N.D.
Montana
Oregon
Idaho
S.D.
Wyoming
Nevada
Neb.
Utah
Kansas
Colo.
California
Oak.
N.M.
Texas
Highly likely conflict potential
Substantial conflict potential
Moderate conflict potential
Unmet rural water needs
Fig. 14-5, p. 310
32
TOO LITTLE FRESHWATER

• About 41 of the worlds population lives in
  river basins that do not have enough freshwater.
• Many parts of the world are experiencing
• Rivers running dry.
• Lakes and seas shrinking.
• Falling water tables from overpumped aquifers.

33
Stress on the Worlds River Basins

• Comparison of the amount of water available with
  the amount used by humans.

Next
34

Europe
North America
Asia
Africa
South America
Australia
Stress
High
None
Water available vs water used
Fig. 14-6, p. 311
35
Case Study Who Should Own and Manage Freshwater
Resources

• Most water is currently controlled by
  governments.
• There is controversy over whether water supplies
  should be owned and managed by governments or by
  private corporations.
• Two large French companies (Veolia Suez) aim to
  control 70 of the U.S. water supply by buying up
  water companies and entering into agreements with
  cities to manage water supplies.

36
How Would You Vote?

• Should private companies own or manage most of
  the world's water resources?
• a. No. Democratically elected governments, which
  are accountable to the voters, should own and
  manage water resources. The profit motive is too
  high to trust these companies.
• b. Qualified yes. Governments should own the
  water, but expert private companies should manage
  it.
• c. Depends. Each case must be decided
  independently. The record on private versus
  public ownership is mixed.
• d. Yes. Private companies have more expertise and
  experience in managing water resources than most
  government bureaucrats.

37
TOO LITTLE FRESHWATER

• Cities are outbidding farmers for water supplies
  from rivers and aquifers.
• Countries are importing grain as a way to reduce
  their water use.
• More crops are being used to produce biofuels.
• We have three options regarding water in the
  future

38
TOO LITTLE FRESHWATER

• Our water options are
• Get more water from aquifers, rivers, lakes
• Desalinate ocean water
• Waste less water.

39
WITHDRAWING GROUNDWATER TO INCREASE SUPPLIES

• Most aquifers are renewable resources unless
  water is removed faster than it is replenished or
  if they are contaminated.
• Groundwater depletion is a growing problem mostly
  from irrigation.
• Globally, we are currently withdrawing
  groundwater 4x faster than it is recharged.
• At least one-fourth of the farms in India are
  being irrigated from overpumped aquifers.

40

Trade-Offs
Withdrawing Groundwater
Advantages
Disadvantages
Useful for drinking and irrigation
Aquifer depletion from overpumping
Sinking of land (subsidence) from overpumping
Available year-round
Exists almost everywhere
Polluted aquifers for decades or centuries
Renewable if not overpumped or contaminated
Saltwater intrusion into drinking water supplies
near coastal areas
Reduced water flows into surface waters
No evaporation losses
Increased cost and contamination from deeper wells
Cheaper to extract than most surface waters
Fig. 14-7, p. 313
41
Groundwater Depletion A Growing Problem

• Areas of greatest aquifer depletion from
  groundwater overdraft in the continental U.S.

• The Ogallala, the worlds largest aquifer, is
  most of the red area in the center (Midwest).
• The Ogallala is essentially a non-renewable
  aquifer.

Figure 14-8
42

Groundwater Overdrafts
High
Moderate
Minor or none
Fig. 14-8, p. 314
43

EFFECTS OF OVERPUMPING AQUIFERS
Major irrigation well
Well contaminated with saltwater
Water table
Sea level
Fresh groundwater aquifer
Saltwater
Seafloor
Interface
Saltwater intrusion
Interface
Normal interface
Fig. 14-11, p. 315
44
Other Effects of Groundwater Overpumping

• Groundwater overpumping can cause
• land to sink (subsidence), crushing the aquifer
  
• contaminated freshwater aquifers near coastal
  areas with saltwater.

Figure 14-11
45
Other Effects of Groundwater Overpumping

• Sinkholes form when the roof of an underground
  cavern collapses after being drained of
  groundwater.

Figure 14-10
46
Groundwater Pumping in Saudi Arabia (1986 2004)

• Irrigation systems from the nonrenewable aquifer
  appear as green dots. Brown dots are wells that
  have gone dry.

Figure 14-9
47
1986
2004
48

Solutions
Groundwater Depletion
Prevention
Control
Raise price of water to discourage waste
Waste less water
Subsidize water conservation
Ban new wells in aquifers near surface waters
Tax water pumped from wells near surface waters
Buy and retire groundwater withdrawal rights in
critical areas
Set and enforce minimum stream flow levels
Do not grow water-intensive crops in dry areas
Fig. 14-12, p. 316
49
USING DAMS AND RESERVOIRS TO SUPPLY MORE WATER

• Large dams and reservoirs can
• produce cheap electricity
• reduce downstream flooding
• provide year-round water for irrigating
  cropland..
• But they also
• displace people
• flood terrestrial ecosystems
• disrupt aquatic systems.

50

Provides water for year-round irrigation of
cropland
Flooded land destroys forests or cropland and
displaces people
Large losses of water through evaporation
Provides water for drinking
Downstream cropland and estuaries are deprived of
nutrient-rich silt
Reservoir is useful for recreation and fishing
Risk of failure and devastating downstream
flooding
Can produce cheap electricity (hydropower)
Downstream flooding is reduced
Migration and spawning of some fish are disrupted
Fig. 14-13a, p. 317
51

Powerlines
Reservoir
Dam
Powerhouse
Intake
Turbine
Fig. 14-13b, p. 317
52
Case Study The Colorado Basin an Overtapped
Resource

• The Colorado River has so many dams and
  withdrawals that it often does not reach the
  ocean.
• 14 major dams and reservoirs, and canals.
• Water is mostly used in desert area of the U.S.
• Provides electricity from hydroelectric plants
  for 30 million people (1/10th of the U.S.
  population).

53
Case Study The Colorado Basin an Overtapped
Resource

• Lake Powell is the second largest reservoir in
  the U.S.
• It hosts one of the hydroelectric plants located
  on the Colorado River.

Glen Canyon Dam
Figure 14-15
54
The Colorado River Basin

• The area drained by this basin is equal to more
  than one-twelfth of the land area of the lower 48
  states.

next
55

IDAHO
WYOMING
Dam
Aqueduct or canal
Salt Lake City
Upper Basin
Denver
Grand Junction
Lower Basin
UPPER BASIN
UTAH
Colorado River
NEVADA
Lake Powell
COLORADO
Lake Mead
Las Vegas
Grand Canyon
Hoover Dam
Glen Canyon Dam
NEW MEXICO
Boulder City
CALIFORNIA
Los Angeles
ARIZONA
Albuquerque
LOWER BASIN
Palm Springs
0
100 mi.
Phoenix
San Diego
Yuma
0
150 km
Tucson
Mexicali
All-American Canal
MEXICO
Gulf of California
Fig. 14-14, p. 318
56
How Would You Vote?

• Do the advantages of large dams outweigh their
  disadvantages?
• a. No. Large dams inflict extensive environmental
  damage and humans must learn to meet their needs
  without them.
• b. Yes. Dams are critical in providing water and
  electricity for people, especially in developing
  countries.

57
Case Study Chinas Three Gorges Damon the
Yangtze River
58
Chinas Three Gorges Dam
59
Case Study Chinas Three Gorges Dam

• There is a debate over whether the advantages of
  the worlds largest dam and reservoir will
  outweigh its disadvantages.
• The dam is 2 kilometers long.
• The electric output is that of 22 large
  coal-burning or nuclear power plants.
• It facilitates ship travel reducing
  transportation costs.
• Dam has displaced 1.2 million people, and when
  filled will displace 5.4 million people
• Dam is built over seismatic fault and already has
  small cracks.

60
Dam Removal

• Some dams are being removed for ecological
  reasons and because they have outlived their
  usefulness (they tend to fill with silt in an
  average of about 50 years)
• In 1998 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
  announced that it would no longer build large
  dams and diversion projects in the U.S.
• The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission has
  approved the removal of nearly 500 dams.
• Removing dams can reestablish ecosystems, but can
  also re-release toxins from sediments into the
  environment.

61
TRANSFERRING WATER FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER

• Transferring water can make unproductive areas
  more productive but can cause environmental harm.
• Pros Promotes investment, jobs and strong
  economy.
• Cons It encourages unsustainable use of water in
  areas water is not naturally supplied.

62
Case Study The California Experience

• A massive transfer of water from water-rich
  northern California to water-poor southern
  California is controversial.

Figure 14-16
63
California Aqueduct
64

CALIFORNIA
NEVADA
Shasta Lake
UTAH
Sacramento River
Oroville Dam and Reservoir
Feather River
North Bay Aqueduct
Lake Tahoe
Sacramento
San Francisco
Hoover Dam and Reservoir (Lake Mead)
South Bay Aqueduct
Fresno
San Joaquin Valley
San Luis Dam and Reservoir
Colorado River
Los Angeles Aqueduct
ARIZONA
California Aqueduct
Colorado River Aqueduct
Central Arizona Project
Santa Barbara
Los Angeles
Salton Sea
San Diego
Phoenix
Tucson
MEXICO
Fig. 14-16, p. 321
65
Case Study The Aral Sea Disaster

• The Aral Sea was once the worlds fourth largest
  freshwater lake.

Figure 14-17
66
Case Study The Aral Sea Disaster
67
Case Study The Aral Sea Disaster

• Diverting water from the Aral Sea and its two
  feeder rivers mostly for irrigation has created a
  major ecological, economic, and health disaster.
• About 85 of the wetlands have been eliminated
  and roughly 50 of the local bird and mammal
  species have disappeared.
• Since 1961, the seas salinity has tripled and
  the water has dropped by 22 meters most likely
  causing 20 of the 24 native fish species to go
  extinct.

68
Case Study The Aral Sea Disaster
69
Case Study The Aral Sea Disaster
70
DESALINIZATION OF SEAWATER

• Removing salt from seawater by current methods is
  expensive and produces large amounts of salty
  wastewater that must be disposed of safely.
• Distillation heating saltwater until it
  evaporates, leaves behind salt in solid form.
• Reverse osmosis uses high pressure to force
  saltwater through a membrane filter.
• Saudi Arabia- 70 of drinking water

71
SEEDING CLOUDS, AND TOWING ICEBERGS AND GIANT
BAGGIES

• Seeding clouds with tiny particles of chemicals
  to increase rainfall, towing icebergs or huge
  bags filled with freshwater to dry coastal areas
  have all been proposed but are unlikely to
  provide significant amounts of freshwater.
• All three ideas are too expensive
• Seeding Clouds leaves chemical residues

72
INCREASING WATER SUPPLIES BY WASTING LESS WATER

• We waste about two-thirds of the water we use
  worldwide (50 in the US), but we could cut this
  waste to 15.
• 65-70 of the water people use throughout the
  world is lost through evaporation, leaks, and
  other losses.
• Water is underpriced through government
  subsidies.
• The lack of government subsidies for improving
  the efficiency of water use contributes to water
  waste.

73

Drip irrigation
(efficiency 9095)
Gravity flow
(efficiency 60 and 80 with surge valves)
Center pivot
(efficiency 8095)
Water usually pumped from underground and sprayed
from mobile boom with sprinklers.
Above- or below-ground pipes or tubes deliver
water to individual plant roots.
Water usually comes from an aqueduct system or a
nearby river.
Fig. 14-18, p. 325
74
INCREASING WATER SUPPLIES BY WASTING LESS WATER

• Sixty percent of the worlds irrigation water is
  currently wasted, but improved irrigation
  techniques could cut this waste to 5-20.
• Center-pivot, low pressure sprinklers sprays
  water directly onto crop.
• It allows 80 of water to reach crop.
• Has reduced depletion of Ogallala aquifer in
  Texas High Plains by 30.

75

Solutions
Reducing Irrigation Water Waste
Line canals bringing water to irrigation ditches
Level fields with lasers
Irrigate at night to reduce evaporation
Monitor soil moisture to add water only when
necessary
Polyculture
Organic farming
Don't grow water-thirsty crops in dry areas
Grow water-efficient crops using drought
resistant and salt-tolerant crop varieties
Irrigate with treated urban waste water
Import water-intensive crops and meat
Fig. 14-19, p. 326
76
Solutions Getting More Water for Irrigation in
Developing Countries The Low-Tech Approach

• Many poor farmers in developing countries use
  low-tech methods to pump groundwater and make
  more efficient use of rainfall.

Figure 14-20
77

Solutions
Reducing Water Waste
Redesign manufacturing processes
Repair leaking underground pipes
Landscape yards with plants that require little
water Xeriscaping
Use drip irrigation
Fix water leaks
Use water meters
Raise water prices
Use waterless composting toilets
Require water conservation in water-short cities
Use water-saving toilets, showerheads, and
front loading clothes washers
Collect and reuse household water (gray
water) to irrigate lawns and nonedible plants
Purify and reuse water for houses, apartments,
and office buildings
Don't waste energy
Fig. 14-21, p. 327
78
Raising the Price of Water A Key to Water
Conservation

• We can reduce water use and waste by raising the
  price of water while providing low lifeline rates
  for the poor.
• When Boulder, Colorado introduced water meters,
  water use per person dropped by 40.
• A 10 increase in water prices cuts domestic
  water use by 3-7.

79
Solutions Using Less Water to Remove Industrial
and Household Wastes

• We can mimic the way nature deals with wastes
  instead of using large amounts of high-quality
  water to wash away and dilute industrial and
  animal wastes.
• Use nutrients in wastewater before treatment as
  soil fertilizer.
• Use waterless and odorless composting toilets
  that convert human fecal matter into a small
  amount of soil material.

80
FLOODS TOO MUCH WATER

• Comparison of St. Louis, Missouri under normal
  conditions (1988) and after severe flooding
  (1993).

Figure 14-22
81
TOO MUCH WATER

• Heavy rainfall, rapid snowmelt, removal of
  vegetation, and destruction of wetlands cause
  flooding.
• Floodplains, which usually include highly
  productive wetlands, help provide natural flood
  and erosion control, maintain high water quality,
  and recharge groundwater.
• To minimize floods, rivers have been narrowed
  with levees and walls, and dammed to store water.

82

Forested Hillside
Oxygen released by vegetation
Diverse ecological habitat
Evapotranspiration
Trees reduce soil erosion from heavy rain and wind
Agricultural land
Steady river flow
Leaf litter improves soil fertility
Tree roots stabilize soil and aid water flow
Vegetation releases water slowly and reduces
flooding
Fig. 14-23a, p. 330
83

After Deforestation
Tree plantation
Evapotranspiration decreases
Roads destabilize hillsides
Ranching accelerates soil erosion by water and
wind
Winds remove fragile topsoil
Gullies and landslides
Agricultural land is flooded and silted up
Heavy rain leaches nutrients from soil and erodes
topsoil
Rapid runoff causes flooding
Silt from erosion blocks rivers and reservoirs
and causes flooding downstream
Fig. 14-23b, p. 330
84

• Human activities have contributed to flood deaths
  and damages.

These are not Natural Disasters !
Figure 14-23
85

Solutions
Reducing Flood Damage
Prevention
Control
Preserve forests on watersheds
Strengthen and deepen streams (channelization)
Preserve and restore wetlands in floodplains
Build levees or floodwalls along streams
Tax all development on floodplains
Use floodplains primarily for -recharging
aquifers -sustainable agriculture and
forestry -recreation
Build dams
Fig. 14-24, p. 331
86
SOLUTIONS USING WATER MORE SUSTAINABLY

• We can use water more sustainably by
• cutting waste
• raising water prices
• preserving forests and wetlands in water basins
• slowing population growth.

Figure 14-25
87

What Can You Do?
Water Use and Waste
Use water-saving toilets, showerheads, and
faucet aerators.
Shower instead of taking baths, and take short
showers.
Stop water leaks.
Turn off sink faucets while brushing teeth,
shaving, or washing.
Flush toilets only when necessary.
Wash only full loads of clothes or use the
lowest water-level for smaller loads.
Use recycled (gray) water for lawn, gardens,
house plants, car washing.
Eat less beef 15,000 gallons of water per
pound of beef produced.
If you use a commercial car wash, try to find
one that recycles its water.
Xeriscape Replace your lawn with native plants
that need little if any watering and decorative
gravel or rocks.
Water lawns and gardens in the early morning or
evening.
Sweep or blow off driveways instead of hosing
off with water.
Use drip irrigation and mulch for gardens and
flowerbeds.
Fig. 14-25, p. 333