Case Studies and Observational Research

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Case Studies and Observational
Research

• Passer Chapter 6

• Slides Prepared by Alison L. OMalley

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Case Studies

• In-depth analysis of an individual, social unit,
  or event
• Remember Phineas Gage?
• How do psychological scientists conducting case
  studies acquire their data?

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Case Studies Concerns

• Difficulty drawing causal conclusions
• Generalizability of findings
• Potential for observer bias
• How can these concerns be overcome?

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Observer Bias Expectations can color perception
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Observational Research

• Umbrella term for various types of
  nonexperimental research designs wherein trained
  observers record ongoing behavior
• Qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods
  approaches
• As opposed to case studies, involve multiple
  participants

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Observational Research
Naturalistic observation Participant
observation Structured observation
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Naturalistic Observation

• Researcher(s) strive for little to no interaction
  with participants
• Disguised participants are not aware theyre
  being observed
• Undisguised participants know theyre being
  observed

Im watching you!
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Naturalistic Observation

• Behavior examined in ecologically valid (i.e.,
  real life) conditions
• But research design lacks control and some data
  may be overlooked
• Reactivity occurs when behavior is altered
  through the process of being observed
• Must remain mindful of APA Ethics Code
• When are researchers permitted to forego informed
  consent?

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Participant Observation

• Researchers embed themselves in the phenomena of
  interest
• Disguised vs. undisguised distinction still
  applies participants may not know researchers
  are among them
• Ethnographic approaches are qualitative and
  incorporate interviews to develop a narrative of
  the research topic

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Participant Observation

• Critical Questions

• Is participant observation more or less subject
  to reactivity than naturalistic observation?
• Is disguised participant observation ethical?

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Structured Observation

• Researchers tweak the research setting,
  influencing what happens when
• Sometimes called analogue behavioral observation
  in keeping with goal of creating analogues of
  naturally occurring situations
• Affords more efficiency and control compared to
  other forms of observational research, but
  greater potential for reactivity

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Recording Observations

• Narrative records extensive description of
  behavior as it unfolds
• Field notes less comprehensive records of
  behavior
• Behavioral coding systems categorize behaviors
  into mutually exclusive categories
• Discuss whether each approach is more qualitative
  or quantitative.

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Recording Observations

• Develop a coding scheme for handshakes. Make sure
  that each category is accompanied by a clear
  operational definition.

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Recording Observations

• Supplements to ongoing behavioral observations

• Rating and ranking scales observers evaluate
  participants standing on various dimensions
• Diaries participants observe and record their
  own behaviors

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What observational research strategy is used
here? What sort of research questions could this
researcher answer based upon her data?
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Sampling Behavior

• Obtaining representative data without recording
  everything and everyone!

• Focal sampling Focus on one participant at a
  time
• Scan sampling Observe everyone for a short
  period of time at predetermined intervals
• Situation sampling Observe behavior across
  multiple settings
• Time sampling Conduct observations over
  representative set of time periods

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Practice Question

• Questions of external validity pervade
  observational research. Which sampling strategy
  may be regarded as the most externally valid?
• Time sampling
• Scan sampling
• Focal sampling
• Situation sampling

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Overcoming Observer Bias

• Well-developed coding system
• Observer training
• Blind observation
• Verify reliability of observer practices

Poor interrater reliability ?!
6.5
10
3.0
4.5
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Avoiding Reactivity

• Disguised observation (an extreme form of
  unobtrusive measurement)
• Habituation
• Physical trace measures
• Archival records

Archives
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Closing Considerations

• How can observational research, correlational
  research, and experimental research work in
  concert to help satisfy the goals of science?
• Description
• Explanation
• Prediction
• Control