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9.1 Plant structure and growth

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Plant Science 9.1 PLANT STRUCTURE AND GROWTH 9.2 TRANSPORT IN ANGIOSPERMOPHYTES 9.3 REPRODUCTION IN ANGIOSPERMOPHYTES Control of Plant Growth Cells on the darker side ... – PowerPoint PPT presentation

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Title: 9.1 Plant structure and growth


1
Plant Science
  • 9.1 Plant structure and growth
  • 9.2 transport in angiospermophytes
  • 9.3 reproduction in angiospermophytes

2
Remember
  • Plant cell!

3
Plant Evolution
Plants originated from green algae that lived in
ponds that occasionally dried out.
4
Angiosperms
  • Angiosperms have dominated the land for over 100
    million years.
  • Known as flowering plants
  • There are about 250,000 known species of
    flowering plants living today.
  • Most of our food comes from flowering plants
  • Roots, such as beets and carrots
  • Fruits of trees and vines, such as apples, nuts,
    berries, and squashes
  • Fruits and seeds of legumes, such as peas and
    beans
  • Grains, such as rice, wheat, and corn

5
Angiosperms
  • Divided into two groups
  • Names refer to the first leaves that appear on
    the plant embryo.
  • Embryonic leaves are called seed leaves, or
    cotyledons
  • Monocots (embryo has one seed leaf)
  • Dicots (embryo has two seed leaves)

6
Angiosperms
  • Monocots
  • Orchids, bamboos, palms, and lilies, as well as
    grains and other grasses
  • Leaves have parallel veins
  • Stems have vascular tissues arranged in a complex
    array of bundles.
  • Flowers have petals and other parts in multiples
    of three.
  • Roots form a fibrous system (a mat of threads)
    that spread out below the soil surface.
  • Make excellent ground cover that reduces erosion.

7
Angiosperms
8
Angiosperms
  • Dicots
  • True dicots include most shrubs and trees (except
    for conifers), as well as many food crops.
  • Leaves have a multibranched network of veins
  • Stems have vascular bundles arranged in a ring.
  • Flower usually has petals and other parts in
    multiples of four or five.
  • Large, vertical root (called a taproot) goes deep
    into the soil
  • You can see this if you try to pull up a
    dandelion

9
Angiosperms
10
Plant Body
  • Composed of organs with various tissues
    reflective of their evolutionary history as
    land-dwelling organisms.
  • Must draw resources from two environments
  • Water and minerals from soil
  • CO2 and light from air

11
Plant Body
  • Plant body is divided up to two main parts
  • Subterranean part? root
  • Aerial part? shoot

12
Plant Body
  • Root system
  • Anchors in the soil, absorbs and transports
    minerals and water, and stores food.
  • Monocots? Fibrous root system consists of a mat
    of generally thin roots spread out shallowly in
    the soil
  • Dicots? have one main vertical taproot with many
    small secondary lateral roots growing outward.
  • Both Monocots and Dicots have tiny projectsions
    called root hairs
  • Enormously increase the root surface area for
    absorption of water and minerals.

13
Plant Body
  • Shoot system
  • Made up of stems, leaves, and adaptations for
    reproduction (flowers)
  • Stems are parts of the plant that are generally
    above ground and support the leaves and flowers.
    Composed of
  • Nodes
  • Points at which leaves are attached
  • Internodes
  • Portions of the stem between nodes
  • Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs in most
    plants (green stems also perform photosynthesis)
  • Consist of a flattened blade and a stalk, or
    petiole, which joins the leaf to a node of the
    stem.

14
Plant Body
  • Shoot system (continued)
  • Two types of buds that are undeveloped shoots
  • Terminal bud
  • Found at the apex (tip) of the stem, has
    developing leaves and a compact series of nodes
    and internodes
  • Axillary bud
  • one of each of the angles formed by a leaf and
    the stem, are usually dormant.

15
Plant Body
  • Apical dominance
  • Results from the terminal bud producing hormones
    that inhibit growth of the axillary buds.
  • By concentrating resources on growing taller,
    apical dominance is an evolutionary adaptation
    that increases the plants exposure to light
  • Important where vegetation is dense.
  • Removing the terminal buds usually stimulates
    growth of the axillary buds.
  • Branching is important for increasing exposure
    the environment

16
Modified Roots, Stems, and Leaves
  • Modified roots
  • Some plants have unusually large taproots that
    store food in carbohydrates such as startch
  • Carrots, turnips, sugar beets, and sweet potatoes

Sugar Beet
17
Modified Roots, Stems, and Leaves
  • Modified Stems
  • Stolon
  • runner has a horizontal stem that grows along
    the ground surface
  • Plantlets form at nodes along their length,
    enabling a plant to grow asexually
  • Example strawberry
  • Rhizomes
  • Look like large, brownish, rootlike structures
  • Horizontal stems that grown just below or along
    the soil surface
  • Store food, and having buds, can also spread and
    form new plants
  • Potato plant has enlarged structures specialized
    for storage called tubers (the potatoes we eat)

18
Modified Roots, Stems, and Leaves
  • Modified stems (continued)
  • Bulbs
  • Modified stems that are also used for underground
    food storage (onions)

19
Modified Roots, Stems, and Leaves
  • Modified Leaves
  • Tendrils
  • Tips coil around a stem, help plants climb
  • Examples grapevines, peas

Tendril- Pea Plant
20
Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
  • Each plant organ- root, stem, or leaf- is made up
    of three tissue systems
  • Dermal
  • Vascular
  • Ground tissues

21
Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
  • Dermal Tissue
  • Forms an outer protective covering.
  • Acts as first line of defense against physical
    damage and infectious organisms.
  • Consists of a single layer of tightly packed
    cells called the epidermis
  • Epidermis of leaves and most stems is covered
    with a waxy layer called cuticle, which helps
    prevent water loss.
  • Typical dicot leaf also has pores on its
    epidermis called stomata
  • which allow CO2 exchange between the surrounding
    air and the photosynthetic cells inside the leaf.
  • Surrounded by guard cells
  • Regulate the size of the stoma

22
Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
Plant Leaf
23
Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
  • Vascular Tissue
  • Made up of
  • Xylem
  • type of vascular tissue that is made up of cells
    that transport water and dissolved ions from the
    roots to the leaves
  • Phloem
  • type of vascular tissue that is made up of cells
    that transport sugars from leaves or storage
    tissues to other parts of the plant

24
Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
  • Vascular Tissue (continued)
  • In the stem..
  • Vascular tissue forms vascular bundles
  • Dicots? arranged in a circle

25
Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
  • Vascular Tissue (continued)
  • In the leaf
  • Vascular tissue form network of veins
  • In the veins, the xylem and phloem are continuous
    with the vascular bundles of the stem.
  • Allows them to be in close contact with
    photosynthetic tissues, ensuring water and
    mineral nutrients from the soil are supplied, and
    that sugars made in the leaves are transported
    throughout the plant

26
Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
  • Ground Tissue (continued)
  • Accounts for the bulk of a young plant, by
    filling in spaces between the epidermis and
    vascular tissue.
  • Functions include photosynthesis, storage, and
    support.
  • Ground tissue inside vascular tissue is called
    pith
  • Ground tissue external to vascular tissue is
    called cortex

Dicot Stem
27
Plant Tissue in Stems and Leaves
  • Ground Tissue (continued)
  • Ground tissue of dicot stems
  • consists of both a cortex region and pith region
  • Ground tissue of the leaf
  • Is called Mesophyll
  • Sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis
  • Consists mainly of photosynthesis cells
  • Loosely arranged to provide air spaces which CO2
    and O2 can circulate
  • Main location of photosynthesis

28
Plant Growth
  • Growth in plants is made possible by tissues
    called meristems.
  • A meristem consists of cells that divide
    frequently, generating additional cells.
  • Some products of this division remain in the
    meristem and produce still more cells, while
    others differentiate and are incorporated into
    tissues and organs of the growing plant.

29
Plant Growth
  • Apical Meristems
  • Meristems at the tips of roots and in the buds of
    shoots
  • Cell division in the apical meristems produces
    the new cells that enable a plant cell to grow in
    length? primary growth
  • Enables roots to push through the soil and allows
    shoots to increase exposure to light and CO2.
  • Growth occurs behind the root tip in three zones
    of primary growth
  • Zone of cell division, zone of elongation, and
    zone of maturation
  • Zone of maturation brings about the three tissue
    systems (dermal, ground, and vascular)

30
Plant Growth
Primary Growth of a Root
31
Plant Growth
  • Lateral meristems
  • Associated with the increase in thickness of
    stems and roots? secondary growth
  • Caused by the activity of two cylinders of
    dividing cells that extend along the length of
    roots and stems
  • Vascular cambium
  • Secondary growth adds layers of vascular tissue
    on both sides of the vascular cambium? wood
  • Cork cambium
  • Outer cambium that forms the secondary growth of
    the epidermis ?cork

32
Control of Plant Growth
  • Auxin is a term used for any chemical substance
    that promotes seedling elongation.
  • Apical meristem at the tip of a shoot is a major
    site of auxin synthesis.
  • As auxin moves downward, it stimulates growth of
    the stem by making cells elongate.
  • Concentration of auxin determines its effect
  • Too low to stimulate shoot cells will cause root
    cells to elongate
  • High conc. stimulates shoots cell and inhibits
    root cell elongation.
  • Stimulates stem elongation and root growth,
    differentiation, and branching.

33
Control of Plant Growth
  • Auxins also play a part in phototropism, an
    occurrence that involves plants bending or moving
    away from light.
  • The shoot tip is responsible for directional
    movement by the plant in response to sunlight, as
    this is the area where auxins can be found.
  • Sunlight eradicates auxin, meaning that the part
    of the shoot tip of the plant which is receiving
    direct sunlight will have the least amount of
    auxin.
  • The extra auxin present on the shaded side
    promotes more cell division and elongation,
    causing the plant to bend towards the sunlight
    after this lop-sided growth.

34
Control of Plant Growth
Cells on the darker side are larger and have
elongated faster causes the shoot to bend
towards the light.
If a plant receives sunlight uniformly from all
sides or is kept in the dark, the cells all
elongate at a similar rate.
Effect of Auxin on Phototropism
35
Transport in Plants
  • Several factors necessary for plant growth
  • CO2 from air?absorbed by leaves
  • O2 from air or soil?absorbed by leaves or roots
  • H2O from soil? absorbed by the roots
  • Minerals from the soild? absorbed by the roots
  • Sugars are made in the leaves from the absorbed
    molecules and ions and used to build the plants
    body and provide energy

36
Solute Uptake From The Roots
  • Mineral ions from the soil can get into the root
    of plants by three different ways
  • 1. Diffusion
  • If the concentration of certain ions is lower
    inside of the root hair cells, they can simply
    diffuse into the root hair cells from the soil
  • 2. Fungal hyphae
  • Some plants live in a symbiotic relationship with
    fungi and use fungal hyphae to increase the
    surface of the root even more. The combination of
    plant root and fungal fibers are called
    mycorrhiza. The fungus benefit from a constant
    supply of sugar while the plant benefit from the
    increased surface area that the fungal hyphae
    provide, they also excrete growth factors and
    antibiotics
  • 3. Mass flow of water into the root can also
    carry ions passively in dissolved form

37
Solute Uptake From the Roots
  • Roots hairs are extensions of epidermal cells
    that cover the root and form a huge surface area
  • Allows the plant to absorb the water and minerals
    it needs for growth
  • Watery solution has to be transported from the
    soil to epidermal cells to cortex of the root to
    the xylem (water-conducting vascular tissue)
  • Plasma membrane of the xylem cells are
    selectively permeable, which helps regulate the
    mineral composition of a plants vascular system.

38
Solute Uptake From the Roots
  • Two possible routes to the xylem
  • Intracellular route
  • Extracellular route

39
Solute Uptake From the Roots
  • Intracellular route
  • A.k.a. Symplatic route
  • Cells within roots are connected via
    plasmodesmata (channels through the walls of
    adjacent cells) which allows for a continuum of
    living cytoplasm among the root cells
  • Once inside epidermal cells, solution can move
    inward from cell to cell without crossing
    membranes

40
Solute Uptake From the Roots
  • Extracellular route
  • Solution moves inward within the hydrophillic
    walls and extracellular spaces of the root cells
    but does not enter the cytoplasm of the epidermis
    or cortex cells.
  • Solution passes through no plasma membranes, and
    there is no selection of solutes until they reach
    the endodermis.
  • Endodermis has a waxy barrier called the
    Casparian strip which stops water and solutes
    from entering the xylem.
  • Water and ions are forced to cross a plasma
    membrane into an endodermal cells, then are
    discharged into the xylem.

41
Solute Uptake in the Roots
  • In a real plant
  • Water and solutes rarely follow just the two
    kinds of routes
  • May take a combination of these routes, and may
    pass through numerous plasma membranes and cell
    walls en route to the xylem.
  • All water and solutes must cross a plasma
    membrane at some point.

42
Transpiration
  • Why transpiration?
  • As a plant grows upward toward sunlight, it needs
    to get water and minerals from the soil.
  • Must be able to transport resources from the
    roots to thrive.

43
Transpiration
  • Xylem tissue is made of two types of conducting
    cells tracheids and vessel elements.
  • When mature, but types of cells are dead,
    consisting only of cell walls, and both are in
    the form of very thin tubes that are arranged end
    to end.
  • Because the cells have openings in their ends, a
    solution of water and inorganic nutrients, called
    xylem sap, can flow through these tubes.
  • Xylem sap flows all the way up from the plants
    roots through the shoot system to the tips of the
    leaves.

44
Transpiration
45
Transpiration
  • Forces that push xylem sap against gravity are
  • Root pressure
  • Root cells actively pump inorganic ions into the
    xylem, and the roots endodermis holds the ions
    there
  • As ions accumulate in the xylem, water tends to
    enter by osmosis, pushing xylem sap upward ahead
    of it.
  • Can push sap up a few meters
  • For the most part, however, xylem sap is not
    pushed from below by root pressure by pulled
    upward by the leaves.
  • Transpiration
  • The pulling force caused by the loss of water
    from the leaves and other aerial parts of a
    plant.
  • Water molecules leave the plant through the stoma
    of the leaf by diffusion.
  • When the stoma is open, water concentration is
    higher in the plant cells than in the surrounding
    atmosphere.

46
Transpiration
  • Properties of water stimulate transpiration
  • Cohesion
  • Sticking together of molecules of the same kind.
  • Because water is polar, they are attracted to
    each other by hydrogen bonds
  • Water molecules form continuous strings in xylem
    tubes, extending all the way from the leaves down
    to the roots.
  • Adhesion
  • Sticking together of molecules of a different
    kind.
  • Water molecules tend to adhere via hydrogen bonds
    to hydrophillic cellulose molecules in the walls
    of xylem cells.

47
Transpiration
  • Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension Mechanism
  • Before a water molecule can leave the leaf, it
    must break off from the end of the string
  • It is pulled off a steep diffusion gradient
    between the moist interior of the leaf and the
    drier surrounding air.
  • Cohesion resists the pulling force of the
    diffusion gradient, but it is not strong enough
    to overcome it.
  • The molecule breaks off, and the opposing forces
    of cohesion and transpiration put tension on the
    remainder of the string of water molecules.
  • As long as transpiration continues, the string is
    kept tense and is pulled upward as one molecule
    exits the leaf and the one right behind it is
    tugged up into its place.
  • Adhesion pulls the remaining water molecules
    upwards from the root against the downward pull
    of gravity.
  • Process does not require energy from the plant,
    they are all extended by physical properties of
    water and the surrounding molecules.

48
Transpiration
  • Summary of Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension
    Mechanism
  • Transpiration exerts a pull that is relayed
    downward along a string of water molecules held
    together by cohesion and helped upward by
    adhesion.
  • Transpiration is an efficient means of moving
    large volumes of water upward from roots to
    shoots.
  • http//www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labb
    ench/lab9/transpull.html

49
Guard Cells
  • PROBLEM! Photosynthesis requires large leaf
    surfaces
  • Results in constant transpiration and water loss
  • If soil dries out, plants wilt and eventually die
  • SOLUTION! Leaf stomata can open and close via the
    control of guard cells.
  • Guard cells control the opening of a stoma by
    changing shape, widening or narrowing the gap
    between the two cells.

50
Abscisic Acid
  • Absicisic acid causes the closing of stomata.
  • ABA crucial for plants to withstand drought.
  • When the plant starts to wilt, ABA accumulates in
    the leaves and causes stomata to close.
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