Title: 9.1 Plant structure and growth
1Plant Science
- 9.1 Plant structure and growth
- 9.2 transport in angiospermophytes
- 9.3 reproduction in angiospermophytes
2Remember
3Plant Evolution
Plants originated from green algae that lived in
ponds that occasionally dried out.
4Angiosperms
- Angiosperms have dominated the land for over 100
million years. - Known as flowering plants
- There are about 250,000 known species of
flowering plants living today. - Most of our food comes from flowering plants
- Roots, such as beets and carrots
- Fruits of trees and vines, such as apples, nuts,
berries, and squashes - Fruits and seeds of legumes, such as peas and
beans - Grains, such as rice, wheat, and corn
5Angiosperms
- Divided into two groups
- Names refer to the first leaves that appear on
the plant embryo. - Embryonic leaves are called seed leaves, or
cotyledons - Monocots (embryo has one seed leaf)
- Dicots (embryo has two seed leaves)
6Angiosperms
- Monocots
- Orchids, bamboos, palms, and lilies, as well as
grains and other grasses - Leaves have parallel veins
- Stems have vascular tissues arranged in a complex
array of bundles. - Flowers have petals and other parts in multiples
of three. - Roots form a fibrous system (a mat of threads)
that spread out below the soil surface. - Make excellent ground cover that reduces erosion.
7Angiosperms
8Angiosperms
- Dicots
- True dicots include most shrubs and trees (except
for conifers), as well as many food crops. - Leaves have a multibranched network of veins
- Stems have vascular bundles arranged in a ring.
- Flower usually has petals and other parts in
multiples of four or five. - Large, vertical root (called a taproot) goes deep
into the soil - You can see this if you try to pull up a
dandelion
9Angiosperms
10Plant Body
- Composed of organs with various tissues
reflective of their evolutionary history as
land-dwelling organisms. - Must draw resources from two environments
- Water and minerals from soil
- CO2 and light from air
11Plant Body
- Plant body is divided up to two main parts
- Subterranean part? root
- Aerial part? shoot
12Plant Body
- Root system
- Anchors in the soil, absorbs and transports
minerals and water, and stores food. - Monocots? Fibrous root system consists of a mat
of generally thin roots spread out shallowly in
the soil - Dicots? have one main vertical taproot with many
small secondary lateral roots growing outward. - Both Monocots and Dicots have tiny projectsions
called root hairs - Enormously increase the root surface area for
absorption of water and minerals.
13Plant Body
- Shoot system
- Made up of stems, leaves, and adaptations for
reproduction (flowers) - Stems are parts of the plant that are generally
above ground and support the leaves and flowers.
Composed of - Nodes
- Points at which leaves are attached
- Internodes
- Portions of the stem between nodes
- Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs in most
plants (green stems also perform photosynthesis) - Consist of a flattened blade and a stalk, or
petiole, which joins the leaf to a node of the
stem.
14Plant Body
- Shoot system (continued)
- Two types of buds that are undeveloped shoots
- Terminal bud
- Found at the apex (tip) of the stem, has
developing leaves and a compact series of nodes
and internodes - Axillary bud
- one of each of the angles formed by a leaf and
the stem, are usually dormant.
15Plant Body
- Apical dominance
- Results from the terminal bud producing hormones
that inhibit growth of the axillary buds. - By concentrating resources on growing taller,
apical dominance is an evolutionary adaptation
that increases the plants exposure to light - Important where vegetation is dense.
- Removing the terminal buds usually stimulates
growth of the axillary buds. - Branching is important for increasing exposure
the environment
16Modified Roots, Stems, and Leaves
- Modified roots
- Some plants have unusually large taproots that
store food in carbohydrates such as startch - Carrots, turnips, sugar beets, and sweet potatoes
Sugar Beet
17Modified Roots, Stems, and Leaves
- Modified Stems
- Stolon
- runner has a horizontal stem that grows along
the ground surface - Plantlets form at nodes along their length,
enabling a plant to grow asexually - Example strawberry
- Rhizomes
- Look like large, brownish, rootlike structures
- Horizontal stems that grown just below or along
the soil surface - Store food, and having buds, can also spread and
form new plants - Potato plant has enlarged structures specialized
for storage called tubers (the potatoes we eat)
18Modified Roots, Stems, and Leaves
- Modified stems (continued)
- Bulbs
- Modified stems that are also used for underground
food storage (onions)
19Modified Roots, Stems, and Leaves
- Modified Leaves
- Tendrils
- Tips coil around a stem, help plants climb
- Examples grapevines, peas
Tendril- Pea Plant
20Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
- Each plant organ- root, stem, or leaf- is made up
of three tissue systems - Dermal
- Vascular
- Ground tissues
21Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
- Dermal Tissue
- Forms an outer protective covering.
- Acts as first line of defense against physical
damage and infectious organisms. - Consists of a single layer of tightly packed
cells called the epidermis - Epidermis of leaves and most stems is covered
with a waxy layer called cuticle, which helps
prevent water loss. - Typical dicot leaf also has pores on its
epidermis called stomata - which allow CO2 exchange between the surrounding
air and the photosynthetic cells inside the leaf. - Surrounded by guard cells
- Regulate the size of the stoma
22Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
Plant Leaf
23Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
- Vascular Tissue
- Made up of
- Xylem
- type of vascular tissue that is made up of cells
that transport water and dissolved ions from the
roots to the leaves - Phloem
- type of vascular tissue that is made up of cells
that transport sugars from leaves or storage
tissues to other parts of the plant
24Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
- Vascular Tissue (continued)
- In the stem..
- Vascular tissue forms vascular bundles
- Dicots? arranged in a circle
25Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
- Vascular Tissue (continued)
- In the leaf
- Vascular tissue form network of veins
- In the veins, the xylem and phloem are continuous
with the vascular bundles of the stem. - Allows them to be in close contact with
photosynthetic tissues, ensuring water and
mineral nutrients from the soil are supplied, and
that sugars made in the leaves are transported
throughout the plant
26Plant Tissues in Stems and Leaves
- Ground Tissue (continued)
- Accounts for the bulk of a young plant, by
filling in spaces between the epidermis and
vascular tissue. - Functions include photosynthesis, storage, and
support. - Ground tissue inside vascular tissue is called
pith - Ground tissue external to vascular tissue is
called cortex
Dicot Stem
27Plant Tissue in Stems and Leaves
- Ground Tissue (continued)
- Ground tissue of dicot stems
- consists of both a cortex region and pith region
- Ground tissue of the leaf
- Is called Mesophyll
- Sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis
- Consists mainly of photosynthesis cells
- Loosely arranged to provide air spaces which CO2
and O2 can circulate - Main location of photosynthesis
28Plant Growth
- Growth in plants is made possible by tissues
called meristems. - A meristem consists of cells that divide
frequently, generating additional cells. - Some products of this division remain in the
meristem and produce still more cells, while
others differentiate and are incorporated into
tissues and organs of the growing plant.
29Plant Growth
- Apical Meristems
- Meristems at the tips of roots and in the buds of
shoots - Cell division in the apical meristems produces
the new cells that enable a plant cell to grow in
length? primary growth - Enables roots to push through the soil and allows
shoots to increase exposure to light and CO2. - Growth occurs behind the root tip in three zones
of primary growth - Zone of cell division, zone of elongation, and
zone of maturation - Zone of maturation brings about the three tissue
systems (dermal, ground, and vascular)
30Plant Growth
Primary Growth of a Root
31Plant Growth
- Lateral meristems
- Associated with the increase in thickness of
stems and roots? secondary growth - Caused by the activity of two cylinders of
dividing cells that extend along the length of
roots and stems - Vascular cambium
- Secondary growth adds layers of vascular tissue
on both sides of the vascular cambium? wood - Cork cambium
- Outer cambium that forms the secondary growth of
the epidermis ?cork
32Control of Plant Growth
- Auxin is a term used for any chemical substance
that promotes seedling elongation. - Apical meristem at the tip of a shoot is a major
site of auxin synthesis. - As auxin moves downward, it stimulates growth of
the stem by making cells elongate. - Concentration of auxin determines its effect
- Too low to stimulate shoot cells will cause root
cells to elongate - High conc. stimulates shoots cell and inhibits
root cell elongation. - Stimulates stem elongation and root growth,
differentiation, and branching.
33Control of Plant Growth
- Auxins also play a part in phototropism, an
occurrence that involves plants bending or moving
away from light. - The shoot tip is responsible for directional
movement by the plant in response to sunlight, as
this is the area where auxins can be found. - Sunlight eradicates auxin, meaning that the part
of the shoot tip of the plant which is receiving
direct sunlight will have the least amount of
auxin. - The extra auxin present on the shaded side
promotes more cell division and elongation,
causing the plant to bend towards the sunlight
after this lop-sided growth.
34Control of Plant Growth
Cells on the darker side are larger and have
elongated faster causes the shoot to bend
towards the light.
If a plant receives sunlight uniformly from all
sides or is kept in the dark, the cells all
elongate at a similar rate.
Effect of Auxin on Phototropism
35Transport in Plants
- Several factors necessary for plant growth
- CO2 from air?absorbed by leaves
- O2 from air or soil?absorbed by leaves or roots
- H2O from soil? absorbed by the roots
- Minerals from the soild? absorbed by the roots
- Sugars are made in the leaves from the absorbed
molecules and ions and used to build the plants
body and provide energy
36Solute Uptake From The Roots
- Mineral ions from the soil can get into the root
of plants by three different ways - 1. Diffusion
- If the concentration of certain ions is lower
inside of the root hair cells, they can simply
diffuse into the root hair cells from the soil - 2. Fungal hyphae
- Some plants live in a symbiotic relationship with
fungi and use fungal hyphae to increase the
surface of the root even more. The combination of
plant root and fungal fibers are called
mycorrhiza. The fungus benefit from a constant
supply of sugar while the plant benefit from the
increased surface area that the fungal hyphae
provide, they also excrete growth factors and
antibiotics - 3. Mass flow of water into the root can also
carry ions passively in dissolved form
37Solute Uptake From the Roots
- Roots hairs are extensions of epidermal cells
that cover the root and form a huge surface area - Allows the plant to absorb the water and minerals
it needs for growth - Watery solution has to be transported from the
soil to epidermal cells to cortex of the root to
the xylem (water-conducting vascular tissue) - Plasma membrane of the xylem cells are
selectively permeable, which helps regulate the
mineral composition of a plants vascular system.
38Solute Uptake From the Roots
- Two possible routes to the xylem
- Intracellular route
- Extracellular route
39Solute Uptake From the Roots
- Intracellular route
- A.k.a. Symplatic route
- Cells within roots are connected via
plasmodesmata (channels through the walls of
adjacent cells) which allows for a continuum of
living cytoplasm among the root cells - Once inside epidermal cells, solution can move
inward from cell to cell without crossing
membranes
40Solute Uptake From the Roots
- Extracellular route
- Solution moves inward within the hydrophillic
walls and extracellular spaces of the root cells
but does not enter the cytoplasm of the epidermis
or cortex cells. - Solution passes through no plasma membranes, and
there is no selection of solutes until they reach
the endodermis. - Endodermis has a waxy barrier called the
Casparian strip which stops water and solutes
from entering the xylem. - Water and ions are forced to cross a plasma
membrane into an endodermal cells, then are
discharged into the xylem.
41Solute Uptake in the Roots
- In a real plant
- Water and solutes rarely follow just the two
kinds of routes - May take a combination of these routes, and may
pass through numerous plasma membranes and cell
walls en route to the xylem. - All water and solutes must cross a plasma
membrane at some point.
42Transpiration
- Why transpiration?
- As a plant grows upward toward sunlight, it needs
to get water and minerals from the soil. - Must be able to transport resources from the
roots to thrive.
43Transpiration
- Xylem tissue is made of two types of conducting
cells tracheids and vessel elements. - When mature, but types of cells are dead,
consisting only of cell walls, and both are in
the form of very thin tubes that are arranged end
to end. - Because the cells have openings in their ends, a
solution of water and inorganic nutrients, called
xylem sap, can flow through these tubes. - Xylem sap flows all the way up from the plants
roots through the shoot system to the tips of the
leaves.
44Transpiration
45Transpiration
- Forces that push xylem sap against gravity are
- Root pressure
- Root cells actively pump inorganic ions into the
xylem, and the roots endodermis holds the ions
there - As ions accumulate in the xylem, water tends to
enter by osmosis, pushing xylem sap upward ahead
of it. - Can push sap up a few meters
- For the most part, however, xylem sap is not
pushed from below by root pressure by pulled
upward by the leaves. - Transpiration
- The pulling force caused by the loss of water
from the leaves and other aerial parts of a
plant. - Water molecules leave the plant through the stoma
of the leaf by diffusion. - When the stoma is open, water concentration is
higher in the plant cells than in the surrounding
atmosphere.
46Transpiration
- Properties of water stimulate transpiration
- Cohesion
- Sticking together of molecules of the same kind.
- Because water is polar, they are attracted to
each other by hydrogen bonds - Water molecules form continuous strings in xylem
tubes, extending all the way from the leaves down
to the roots. - Adhesion
- Sticking together of molecules of a different
kind. - Water molecules tend to adhere via hydrogen bonds
to hydrophillic cellulose molecules in the walls
of xylem cells.
47Transpiration
- Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension Mechanism
- Before a water molecule can leave the leaf, it
must break off from the end of the string - It is pulled off a steep diffusion gradient
between the moist interior of the leaf and the
drier surrounding air. - Cohesion resists the pulling force of the
diffusion gradient, but it is not strong enough
to overcome it. - The molecule breaks off, and the opposing forces
of cohesion and transpiration put tension on the
remainder of the string of water molecules. - As long as transpiration continues, the string is
kept tense and is pulled upward as one molecule
exits the leaf and the one right behind it is
tugged up into its place. - Adhesion pulls the remaining water molecules
upwards from the root against the downward pull
of gravity. - Process does not require energy from the plant,
they are all extended by physical properties of
water and the surrounding molecules.
48Transpiration
- Summary of Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension
Mechanism - Transpiration exerts a pull that is relayed
downward along a string of water molecules held
together by cohesion and helped upward by
adhesion. - Transpiration is an efficient means of moving
large volumes of water upward from roots to
shoots. - http//www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labb
ench/lab9/transpull.html
49Guard Cells
- PROBLEM! Photosynthesis requires large leaf
surfaces - Results in constant transpiration and water loss
- If soil dries out, plants wilt and eventually die
- SOLUTION! Leaf stomata can open and close via the
control of guard cells. - Guard cells control the opening of a stoma by
changing shape, widening or narrowing the gap
between the two cells.
50Abscisic Acid
- Absicisic acid causes the closing of stomata.
- ABA crucial for plants to withstand drought.
- When the plant starts to wilt, ABA accumulates in
the leaves and causes stomata to close.