SOURCES OF KNOWLDGE

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SOURCES OF KNOWLDGE
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• Where do we get information we want?
• (Source of knowledge)
• 1. Experience
• 2. Authority
• 3. Deductive reasoning
• 4. Inductive reasoning
• Experiences, what does it mean?
• But, whats the problem?
• Overgeneralization
• Selected observation.
• Premature closure
• Halo Effect

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Authority/expert opinion People sometimes seek
opinion form someone who has the experience or
knowledge. We see physician for health problems,
we see stockbrokers for investment etc. Who are
the authorities? Parents, teachers, expert,
books Quick, simple and cheap way to learn
something Is the answer or solution valid and
reliable? It depends on the credentials of the
experts. They give opinions based on what the
person knows
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Tradition That is the authority of the
past Misalnya kenapa buat begini? Orang dah
biasa buat begini, sakitnya baik
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Common sense Kalau hukuman tak berat, penagih
makin ramai
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Media myth Apa yang digambarkan oleh media
semuanya betul
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Deductive reasoning (Proses Logik) Reaching
conclusion through logic From general to
specific A system of organizing known facts in
order to reach a conclusion through a logic
process Bermula dengan premis supporting
evidence (major dan minor) dan berakhir dengan
rumusan Untuk membolehkan rumusan itu benar, maka
premis mestilah benar.
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Contoh deductive reasoning ORANG MALAYSIA ADALAH
ORANG ASIA. (major premise) AHMAD ADALAH ORANG
MALAYSIA. (minor premise) OLEH ITU AHMAD ADALAH
ORANG ASIA. (Conclusion) All human beings are
mortal Sally is a human being Therefore, Sally is
mortal every mammal has lungs All rabbits are
mammals Therefore, every rabbit has a lung
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both major and minor premise must be true
to come to a true conclusion if either one
is fall the conclusion may not be true As long
as the first two statements are true, the third
statement must be true.
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Inductive reasoning-empirism Conclusion is
reached by observing examples and generalizing
from example to the whole class In deductive,
premise must be known and true before a true
conclusion can be reached. But, how one is to
know if the premises are true?
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Untuk lebih pasti lagi mengenai ketepatan rumusan
, kita mesti cerap semua contoh. Dan ini
dikenali PERFECT INDUCTION Tetapi dalam keadaan
sebenar, pencerapan ke atas semua unit adalah
tidak praktikal, maka kita akan buat imperfect
induction berdasarkan pencerapan yang tidak
lengkap.
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Kita hanya mampu buat perfect induction bagi
kumpulan kecil sahaja. Sesuatu rumusan yang kita
buat untuk suatu kumpulan kecil tidak semestinya
benar untuk kumpulan lain. Oleh itu kita
biasanya buat imperfect induction di mana kita
cerap sample kemudian kita infer kepada
keseluruhan kumpulan.
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Example of inductive reasoning Every rabbit that
has ever been observed has lung Therefore, every
rabbits has lungs
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KAEDAH SAINTIFIK- empirical approach Ialah
kombinasi deduktif dan induktif Sebabnya 
pengumpulan data secara induction alone (isolated
knowledge) tak banyak memberi sumbangan kepada
kemajuan pengetahuan dan banyak masalah tidak
dapat diselesaikan secara induction semata-mata
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A process in which investigators move inductively
from their observation to hypothesis and then
deductively from hypothesis to the logical
implication of the hypothesis. The use of
hypothesis is a principal difference between
scientific approach and inductive reasoning. In
inductive-one makes observations first.
Scientific-hypothesis than make observation
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Scientific Method

• Science is a way of thinking that involves
  continuous and systematic interplay of rationale
  thought and empirical observation
• The 6 Basic Components of Science
• Understanding a topic and prior research on
  that topic.
• Develop a research question or theory.
• Developing procedures to answer the question
  or test the theory.
• Planning for, and then making appropriate
  empirical observations.
• Rationally interpreting the empirical
  observations.
• Publishing/disseminating findings and
  interpretations.

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The Empirical Approach

• The WHY, WHOM, HOW, and WHEN of research!
• WHY establishes the need for the study, and
  generates a series of
• expected results, or hypotheses.
• WHOM what population, and whether the population
  or a sample
• HOW selection of variables to observe, and how
  to statistically
• analyze them
• WHEN establishes the need for the study
• Acquired data may be numbers or narrative,
  depending on the type of
• Research
• Quantitative Qualitative

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The 4 Basic Assumptions of Science

• 1. A true, physical universe exists.
• 2. The universe is primarily an orderly system.
• 3. The principles of this orderly universe can be
  discovered,
• particularly through scientific research.
• 4. Our knowledge of the universe is always
  incomplete.
• a) new knowledge can, and should, alter
  current ideas and theories. Therefore,
• b) all knowledge and theories are tentative.

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5 steps of a typical scientific
inquiry 1. Identify the problem-disturbance in
schools 2. Define the problem make it clear
what exactly the problem is 3. Formulate
hypothesis- will this is the possibility 4. Proj
ect consequences-what if? what would happen if
we 5. Test hypothesis Rumusan
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Proses of mainting motosikal. Goes over the
bump misfire, go again misfire again, several
times. Go over smooth stretch- nothing happen, go
over bump- misfire again, then we can conlcude
that misfiring was caused by bump. This is
inductive Iaitu kita mula dengan pemerhatian baru
kita buat keputusan.
Katakan kita tak boleh start engine kereta. Kita
tahu to start a car you need power which is
powered by the battery. Dengan itu jika batery
mati, maka kereta tak boleh dihidupkan. Dan ini
adalah deduction. Start with general knowledge
and predict specific observation.
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Kekangan kaedah saintifik dalam sosial
sains Complexity subject matter with human
subject. Variables Difficulty in making
generalization Kesukaran pencerapan/pemerhatian Su
bjective interpretation Kesukaran mengulangi
kajian
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Limitation of scientific approach
Complexity of subject matter Human beings (various charcteristics)
Difficulty in Observation Less objective. Own values and attitudes may have some influence
Difficult in replication Location, researcher, subjects experience and values
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Interaction of observers and subjects May think that X causes Y. It may be their present that cause Y. Hawthorne experiment
Control problems Lots of variable may influence the findings. Rigid control in impossible. Work under condition that is less precise, has to deal with many variables at one time
Measurement problems Deals with validity and reliability of measurement
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Designs and methodological problems Limitations of findings
Impose of values Subjective interpretation
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Attitudes of scientists
Doubters who maintain a highly skeptical attitude toward the data of science Finidngs are tenttative. Need verification. Need replication
Objective and impartial No perosonal bias. May discard the theory if enough eveidence to do so
Deals with facts not values Do not make decision about what is good or bad. They provide data concerning the realtionship among events but you must go a step further to make decision
Not satisfied with isolated facts but seek to integrate and systematize their findings Put things in an orderly system. Bring together the findings into a meaningdful pattern
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Role of Theory In Research

• Theories explain relationships between discrete
  observations.
• Not all research tests or develops theories
• Most research relies on theories to develop
  hypotheses.
• Theories can be
• Deductive Inductive.
• Theory leads to development Theory formulated
  from
• Hypothesis discrete observation

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What is a theory?

• A set of interelated constructs (concepts),
  defination, and propositions that presents a
  systematic view of of phenomena by specifing
  relations among variables, with the purpose of
  explaining and predicting the phenomena. Theory
  knit together the results of observations,
  enabling scientist to make general statements
  about variables and the relationships among
  variables

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Purposes of theories

• Explain why
• Predict what will
• Suggest control