Title: Santilli
1Santillis New Fuels as Sources of Clean
Combustion
- I. B. Das Sarma
- Jhulelal Institute of Technology
- Off. Koradi Octroi Post
- Lonara, Nagpur-441 111
- INDIA
- E-mail dassarmaindrani_at_rediffmail.com
2Acknowledgment
- The financial support for this work from The R.
M. Santilli Foundation, Palm Harbor, Florida is
gratefully acknowledged. - The author is grateful to Prof. A.A. Bhalekar
Dr. V.M. Tangde for conducting One day
motivational workshop on Santillis New
Mathematics at Smt. Bhagwati Chaturvedi College
of Engineering, Nagpur, INDIA. - Author is also grateful for the constant
encouragement and valuable guidance in preparing
this paper and presentation by- - Professor R. M. Santilli
- Professor C. Corda
- Professor R. Anderson
- Professor A. A. Bhalekar
- Dr. V. M. Tangde
3Contents
- Introduction
- Modern Scenario of energy
- Hadronic Energy of Non-nuclear Type
- Hadronic Energy of Nuclear Type
- Conclusion
4Insufficiencies of Quantum Mechanics
- It is based on Galilei and Poincaré symmetries,
which are applicable only for Keplerian systems,
requiring a nucleus. - So, according to Prof. Santilli, Quantum
mechanics cannot be exactly valid for nuclear
structures because nuclei do not have their own
nucleus to revolve around, as a consequence of
which the basic Galilean and Poincaré symmetries
must be broken, thus causing incontrovertible
deviations from quantum axioms.
5- Hamiltonian nature of quantum mechanics restricts
the understanding of nuclear forces. Hence, to
represent the a nuclear force with a potential up
to 35 different potentials have been added
without achieving the required exact
representation. -
- The linear, local and Hamiltonian character of
quantum mechanics is effective for the
classification of hadrons under their point-like
approximation, but is inadequate for structure
related problems due to expected nonlinear,
nonlocal and non-Hamiltonian effects occurring
within the hyper dense media inside hadrons.
6- Thus, Prof. Santilli states
- According to the standard model, at the time of
the neutron synthesis from protons and electrons
inside a star, the permanently stable protons and
electrons simply disappear from the universe to
be replaced by conjectural quarks, and then the
proton and the electron simply reappear at the
time of the neutron decay. These beliefs are
simply repugnant to me because excessively
irrational, thus showing the conduction of
particle physics via academic authority, rather
than scientific veritas.
7- The theory fails to explain the following even
for the simplest nucleus of deuterium - The spin 1 of deuterium since quantum axioms
require that the single stable bound state of two
particles with spin ½, (proton and neutron) must
be the singlet state with spin zero. - To represent the magnetic moment of deuterium.
- The stability of unstable neutron when coupled to
proton in a nucleus (e.g. deuterium). - T½ of neutron ?15 minutes.
8- Quantum Mechanics is inapplicable for explaining
the synthesis of neutron from a proton and an
electron as occurring in stars because, in this
case the Schrödinger equation becomes
inconsistent. - It is unsuitable for all processes that are
irreversible over time, like nuclear fusions,
because quantum mechanics is reversible over
time, thus admitting the time reversal event
which violates energy conservation, causality and
other basic laws. - It also fails to explain irreversible non-nuclear
process like combustion.
9Insufficiencies of Quantum Chemistry
- It cannot predict quantitatively how two
identical electrons attract each other to form a
bond (as in a molecule). - It cannot be exactly valid for the study of
chemical reactions. - E.g. In case of the strictly irreversible
reaction - H2O ? H2O
- Quantum chemistry admits finite probability for
the time reversal event, i.e. the spontaneous
disintegration of the water molecule into its
original constituents, - H2O ? H2 O
- However, this concept violates the principle of
conservation of the energy.
10- Exact representation of molecular binding
energies could be provided only by screening of
the Coulomb potential (i.e. multiplication of
fundamental Coulomb potential between two valence
electrons, V e2/r, by an arbitrary function
f(r) of completely unknown origin). -
-
- f(r) was obtained from experimental data and
screened Coulomb potentials accurately
represented binding energies.
11However
- The conversion of Coulomb potential to its
screened form requires a non-unitary transform. - So, the screening of Coulomb potential causes
major departures from the unitary structure of
quantum mechanics. - The Coulomb potential is a fundamental invariant
of quantum mechanics. Consequently, its screening
causes the breaking of the fundamental Galilei
symmetry under which conditions quantum mechanics
cannot be accurate. - It is well known that the quantum of energy is
solely possible for the Coulomb law and that any
quantization of the energy is impossible for
screened potentials.
12Need for Hadronic Mechanics
- Quantitative treatment of neutron synthesis from
protons and electrons (occurring in stars). - Quantitative studies on the possible utilization
of the inextinguishable energy contained inside
the neutron. - The study of new clean energies and fuels that
cannot even be conceived with the 20th century
doctrines and other basic advances.
13- Quantum mechanics was conceived for the study of
interactions among particles at large mutual
distances which is representable with
differential equations defined over a finite set
of isolated points. - Hadronic mechanics was formulated for the study
of the additional nonlocal-integral interactions
due to mutual wave overlapping. The interactions
are defined over an entire volume and cannot be
effectively approximated by their abstraction
into finite number of isolated points. - The same interaction cannot be derived from a
Hamiltonian or non-linear in their wave functions
or their derivatives1.
1. Elements of Hadronic Mechanics, Vol. I,
Mathematical Foundation, R.M. Santilli, 2nd
Edition, 1995, Naukova Dumka Publishers, Kiev.
14Hadronic Mechanics
Macroscopic bodies in motion
Valid at atomic level of distances structure
Valid for inter-particle distance within 1 fm
gt10-3 cm
gt10-13 10 8 cm
10-13 cm
Newtonian Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics
Hadronic Mechanics
Prof. Santilli has founded more fundamental
theory of the universe, named after the composite
nuclear particle hadron as Hadronic Mechanics.
15New Mathematics
- Prof. Santilli states that There cannot be a
really new theory without a really new
mathematics, and there cannot be a really new
mathematics without new numbers. - He formulated various new mathematics that
coincides at the abstract realization-free level
with traditional mathematics, discovering new
realizations of pre-existing abstract
mathematical axioms, with consequential far
reaching mathematical and physical implications.
16Isomathematics
- It is developed for quantitative invariant
treatment of non-local, non-potential and
non-linear interactions among extended particles
under mutual penetration at short distance is
today known under the name of Isomathematics. - Iso denotes the preservation of conventional
axioms2.
- 2. Iso-, Geno-, Hyper-mechanics for Matter, their
Isoduals, for Antimatter, and their Novel
Applications in Physics, Chemistry and Biology,
R.M. Santilli, Extended version of invited
plenary talks at the Conference of the
International Association for Relativistic
Dynamics, Washington, D.C., June 2002
International Congress of Mathematicians, Hong
Kong, August 2002 International Conference on
Physical Interpretation of Relativity Theories,
London, September 2002.
17- Isomathematics was initially proposed by Prof. R.
M. Santilli3 in 1978 and subsequently studied by
several mathematicians, theoreticians and
experimentalists4-7 . - Valence bonds include conventional local
differential Coulomb interactions, as well as
nonlocal, nonlinear and nonpotential interactions
due to wave overlappings. - The former interactions can be represented with
the conventional Hamiltonian, but the latter
interactions can be represented via a
generalization of the basic unit as a condition
to achieve invariance (since the unit is the
basic invariant of any theory).
3. R. M. Santilli Hadronic J. 1, 224
(1978). 4. J. L. Lagrange, Mechanique Analytique
(1788), reprinted by Gauthier-Villars, Paris
(1888). 5. S. Lie, Over en Classe Geometriske
Transformationer, English translation by E.
Trell, Algebras Groups and Geometries 15, 395
(1998). 6. R. M. Santilli, Suppl. Nuovo Cimento
6, 1225 (l968). 7. R. M. Santilli, Hadronic J.
3, 440 (l979).
18- Isomathematics preserves all the axioms of 20th
century Lie-algebra but introduces the
non-unitary multiplication unit (a scalar or
tensorial quantity). - Thus, all the ordinary units can be istopically
lifted (converted to its isotopic equivalent) by
multiplying it with an isounit, Î. - Thus, divergent parameters can be made convergent
i.e. achieving the broadening of
unitary-canonical theories into non-unitary,
non-canonical extensions - Isounit does not have an unit value as in
ordinary mathematics but may have any positive
value. - I 1?Î
- The positive definiteness of iso-unit, Î is given
by - where
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20Genomathematics
- The irreversibility of the macroscopic reality
cannot be quantified by isomathematics is that
because the Lie-Santilli isotheory is
structurally reversible (theory coincides with
its time reversal image for reversible
Hamiltonians and isounits). - The resolution of this insufficiency required
suitable broadening of the Lie-Santilli
isotheory. In turn, the achievement of an
invariant formulation of the latter theory
required the construction of a new mathematics
that Professor Santilli formulated8 way back in
1978 under the name of genomathematics - The term genotopy means inducing configuration
alternately can be understood as axiom inducing. - Alteration of the original axioms in favour of
covering axioms admitting the original one as
particular case.
8. R. M. Santilli, On a possible Lie-admissible
covering of the Galilei relativity in Newtonian
mechanics for non-conservative and Galilei
form-noninvariant systems, Hadronic J., vol. 1,
pp. 223 -423, 1978
21- The main idea of genomathematics is the selection
of two different generalized units called
genounits, the first Îgt for the ordered
multiplication to the right A gt B, called forward
genoproduct, and the second ltÎ for the ordered
multiplicationto the left A lt B, called backward
genoproduct, according to the general rules. - The point at the foundations of the
Lie-admissible theory is that the multiplications
of the same numbers in different orderings are
generally different, a gt ß ? ß lt a - So, this indicates possibility of introducing two
orderd iso units called geno units1
22- The 1st expression permits dual generaliztion
one for ordering to the right yielding right
genofield having elements are called right
genonumber. - The one for ordering to the left yielding left
genofield having elements are called
left genonumber -
- The two genofields can be denoted with the
unified symbol with the understanding
that the orderings can be used only individually1 -
23Hypermathematics
- Genonumbers were extended to yet new numbers
today known as Santilli's hyperreal, hypercomplex
and hyperquaternionic numbers to the right and to
the left, or generically as hypernumbers that are
multivalued, namely, not only the units and
products to the right and to the left are
different, but the hyperunit has an ordered set
of values and, consequently, the multiplication
yields an ordered set of results. -
- E.g. the hyper-lifting of
-
- results in
- Santilli's hypernumbers are different than
hyperstructures because the former use
conventional operations while the latter use
abstract operations. - Santilli's hypernumbers verify all axioms of a
field, while conventional hyperstructures do not
generally admit any unit at all, thus not being
generally formulated over a field, with
consequential severe restrictions in
applications.
24- Genotheories are insufficient to represent the
entire nature as they are unable to represent
biological structures such as a cell or a
seashell. The latter systems are indeed
open-nonconservative-irreversible, yet they
possess a structure dramatically more complex
than that of a nonconservative Newtonian system.
A study of the issue has revealed that the
limitation of genotheories is due to their
single-valued character.
- As an illustration, mathematical treatments
complemented with computer visualization have
established that the shape of sea shells can be
well described via the conventional single-valued
three-dimensional Euclidean space and geometry
according to the empirical perception of our
three Eustachian tubes.
A computer visualization of seashells studied by
Illert that varies the isoeuclidean
representation of seashell's growth while the
conventional Euclidean representation does not.
25- Hyper-mathematics is characterized by the
following hyperunits expressed for the lifting of
the Euclidean unit - Mathematics is not 3m-dimensional, but rather it
is 3-dimensional and m-multi-valued. Such a
feature permits the increase of the reference
axes, e.g., for m 2 we have the six axes, while
achieving compatibility with our sensory
perception because at the abstract,
realization-free level. - The hypermathematics characterized by hyperunit
is indeed 3-dimensional.
26Modern Scenario of Energy
- Energy requirements is being mostly fulfilled by
the conventional source of energy i.e. molecular
combustion of fossil fuels, hydrogen or nuclear
fission. - Fossil fuel combustion generates large amount of
green house gases like CO2, hydrocarbons, etc. - Hydrogen combustion depletes atmospheric O2 by
forming H2O. - Nuclear fission generates large amount of nuclear
waste risking ecosystem and life.
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29- Clean energy is obtained by harnessing renewable
energy sources like solar, wind, geothermal,
tidal, etc. - They are generally dependent on geographical
locations. - Also the power generated cannot be stored
efficiently due to lack of efficient battery
technology. - The modern day demand is that of clean energy
source, which is cheap and abundant. - The fuels developed should be such that can be
used in existing engines without any or major
modifications. - This requirement is fulfilled by changing the
approach from quantum mechanics to hadronic
mechanics to hadronic chemistry.
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31Non-nuclear Type Hadronic Fuel (Magnecular
Combustion)
32Hydrogen
- Two H-atoms placed adjacent to each other without
overlap of electron wave packets. They show
conventional spherical charge distribution around
their respective nucleus. - Isochemical model of H2 molecule with a stable
iso-electronium at absolute zero revolving in the
oo-shaped orbital
33The new interactions at the foundations of
hadronic mechanics originating from mutual
contact and penetration of the wavepackets of
particles at short distances that are
non-Hamiltonian because non-linear, non-local and
non-potential, thus requiring a non-unitary
lifting of quantum mechanics, including its
mathematics, physical laws and experimental
verifications9.
9. I. Gandzha and J. Kadeisvily New Sciences For
A New Era Mathematical, Physical and Chemical
Discoveries of Ruggero Maria Santilli Sankata
Printing Press, Kathmandu, Nepal, (2011).
34It consists in the use of sufficiently strong
external magnetic fields which can progressively
eliminate all rotations, thus reducing the
hydrogen molecule to a configuration which, at
absolute zero degrees temperature, can be assumed
to lie in a plane. The planar configuration of
the electron orbits then implies the
manifestation of their magnetic moment which
would be otherwise absent. The R.H.S of the above
picture outlines the geometry of the magnetic
field in the immediate vicinity of an electric
arc as described in the text for the case of
hadronic molecular reactors. the circular
configuration of the magnetic field lines around
the electric discharge, the tangential nature of
the symmetry axis of the magnetic polarization of
the hydrogen atoms with respect to said circular
magnetic lines, and the consideration of hydrogen
atoms at orbital distances from the electric arc
10-8 cm, resulting in extremely strong magnetic
fields proportional to (10-8)-2 1016 Gauss,
thus being ample sufficient to create the needed
polarization. The reason for these results is the
intrinsic geometry of the PlasmaArcFlow
A schematic view of the main mechanism underlying
the creation of magnecules, here illustrated for
the case of the hydrogen molecule.
35- It consists in the use of sufficiently strong
external magnetic fields which can progressively
eliminate all rotations, thus reducing the
hydrogen molecule to a configuration which, at
absolute zero degrees temperature, can be assumed
to lie in a plane. - The planar configuration of the electron orbits
then implies the manifestation of their magnetic
moment which would be otherwise absent. - The r.h.s. of the above picture outlines the
geometry of the magnetic field in the immediate
vicinity of an electric arc as in hadronic
molecular reactors. - The circular configuration of the magnetic field
lines around the electric discharge, the
tangential nature of the symmetry axis of the
magnetic polarization of the hydrogen atoms with
respect to said circular magnetic lines, and the
consideration of hydrogen atoms at orbital
distances from the electric arc 10-8 cm,
resulting in extremely strong magnetic fields
proportional to (10-8)-2 1016 Gauss, thus being
ample sufficient to create the needed
polarization. - The reason for these results is the intrinsic
geometry of the PlasmaArcFlowTM
36Santilli Magnecules
- The search for a new bond between stable clusters
of same atoms/molecules composing fossil fuels
under the following - CONDITION 1 The new bond should be weaker than
the valence bond as a necessary condition to
decrease pollutants - CONDITION 2 The new weaker bond should allow the
formation of clusters that are stable at
industrially used storage values of temperature
and pressure, - e.g., those for methane and
- CONDITION 3 The new, weaker and stable bond
should decompose itself at the combustion
temperature to optimize the energy released by
the combustion. - These conditions could be fulfilled by a novel
chemical species called Santilli Magnecules or
Magnecules.
37- An isolated conventional spherical configuration
of H-atom at absolute zero degree temperature
shows forces due to- - electric charge of electron
- electric charge of proton
- intrinsic magnetic moment of electron
- intrinsic magnetic moment of proton.
- The same H-atom when its peripheral electron
orbit is polarized into a plane, a fifth field10
due to the magnetic dipole moment caused by the
rotation of the electron in its planar orbit
emerges.
10. The new fuels with magnecular structure,
Ruggero Maria Santilli, International Academic
Press, 2005
38- Magnecules, thus are novel chemical species
having at least one magnecular bond other than
usual covalent bond. - denotes covalent bond and denotes
magnecular bond - The atoms are held together by magnetic fields
originating due to toroidal polarization of the
atomic electron orbits. - The rotation of the electrons within the toroid
creates the magnetic field which is absent for
the same atom with conventional spherical
distribution of electron orbitals.
The oo-shaped orbital of isoelectronium, under an
external strong magnetic field gets polarized.
The two H atoms acquire parallel but opposite
magnetic polarities with null value at sufficient
distance. The toroidal distribution of the
isoelectronium orbital due to the isouncertainty
principle of hadronic mechanics.
39- When two such polarized atoms are sufficiently
close to each other and in north-south-north-south
alignment, the resulting total force between the
two atoms is attractive. - This polarization requires high magnetic field.
- At atomic distances from electric arcs of 1000 A
of current, the magnetic field is of the order of
1011 Gauss, which is sufficient to polarize
atomic orbitals into toroids for magnecular
coupling.
Conceptual diagram of an elementary magnecule
comprising two identical atoms whose bond is
entirely of magnecular character, originating
from opposing polarities North-South-North-South
of the toroidal distributions of orbitals, as
well as the polarization of nuclear and electron
magnetic moments.
40Classification of magnecules
- Isomagnecules
- All single-valued characteristics
- Reversible in time, when characterized by
isochemistry -
- Genomagnecules
- All single-valued characteristics
- Irreversible in time, when characterized by
genochemistry - Hypermagnecules
- At least one multi-valued characteristic
- Irreversible in time, when characterized by
hyperchemistry
41Structural classification of magnecules
- Elementary
- Composed only of two molecules,
- e.g. H H H H H O H H O
H and so on - Magneplexes
- Entirely composed of several identical molecules
- e.g. H O H H O H H O H
H O H H O H and so on - Magneclusters
- Composed of several different molecules
- e.g. H H C O O C O C O
H H and so on
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43Characteristics of magnecules
- Large atomic weights which are ten times or more
than the conventional molecules. - Large peaks in macroscopic percentages in mass
spectra, which do not belong to conventional
molecules. - These peaks show same infra-red and ultra-violet
signature as expected from the conventional
molecules and/or dimers constituting the
magnecule. - Said infrared and ultraviolet signatures are
generally altered with respect to the
conventional versions. - Magnecules have an anomalous adhesion to other
substances.
44- Breaks down into fragments under high energetic
collisions, with subsequent recombination with
other fragments and/or conventional molecules. - They can build up or lose individual atoms,
molecules during collision. - They have an anomalous penetration through other
substances indicating a reduction of the average
size of conventional molecules as expected under
magnetic polarizations. - Gas magnecules show an anomalous solubility in
liquids due to new magnetic bonds between gas and
liquid molecules caused by magnetic induction. - Magnecules can be formed by molecules of
immiscible liquids.
45- A gas with magnecular structure does not follow
the ideal gas law. - Substances with magnecular structure have
anomalous physical characteristics, as compared
to the conventional molecules. - Magnecules release more energy in thermochemical
reactions than that released by the same
reactions among unpolarized molecular
constituents. - All the above characteristic features disappear
when the magnecules are brought to a sufficiently
high temperature (Curie Magnecular Temperature),
which varies from species to species.
46MagneGas
- Principle of synthesis of magnecules is similar
to the magnetization of a ferromagnet where the
orbits of unbounded electrons are polarized. - Thus, theoretically any matter whether solid,
liquid or gas can be converted to magnecules
provided it is subjected to sufficiently strong
external magnetic field. - So, molecular H2 and O2 gases can be turned into
their respective magnecular structure called
MagneHydrogenTM (MH) and MagneOxygenTM (MO) by
subjecting them to strong external magnetic
field. - This field is obtained in a Hadronic reactor.
47Hadronic Refinery
Santilli hadronic refineries for converting
liquid waste into a clean burning, cost
competitive gaseous fuel with magnecular
structure. The pressure metal vessel the
submerged electrodes the recirculation of the
feedstock through the arc the external AC-DC
converter the external automatic controls of the
arc and the collection of the produced
magnecular fuel.
48- Six characteristic temperature ranges and
associated regions11
Underwater arc (30 to 40V DC, 500 to 1000A) T gt1500 oC Dissociation of H2O (110 kcal/mol), association of CO (255 kcal/mol) and CO2 molecules
Region close to arc 800 oC to1500 oC Association of H2 (104kcal/mol) and H2O
Region close to arc 700 oC to 800 oC Very small bubbles of CO, H2, CO2, and H2O gases
Region close to arc 150 oC to 700 oC Very small bubbles of CO, H2, CO2, and H2O gases
Region close to arc 100 oC to 150 oC Association of O2 molecules and complexes (30 kcal/mol), small and big bubbles of CO, H2, CO2, O2, and H2O gases
Region far from the arc 70 oC to 100 oC Association of complexes (30 kcal/mol), water condensation, big bubbles of CO, H2, CO2, and O2 gases leaving the liquid
- Structure and Combustion of MagnegasesTM, R. M.
Santilli and A. K. Aringazin,
- arXivphysics/0112066v1 physics.gen-ph
20 Dec 2001
49Efficiency of Hadronic Reactor
- The efficiency of Hadronic reactor is expressed
in two ways namely Scientific Efficiency and
Commercial Efficiency . - Scientific Efficiency is always less than 1 as
per the Carnot theorem. - However, the Hadronic reactors do not produce
energy sufficient for the entire regeneration of
the used electric energy for various reasons,
such as dispersion, very low efficiency of
current electric generators, etc.
50- Regardless of this limitation, the production of
MagneGas (MH) in an electric power plant (to whom
the cost of electricity is zilch) is very
advantageous from an energy viewpoint because- - For every kW of used energy, they produce at
least the equivalent of 3 kW of thermal energy in
MagneGas (MH). - When MH is used as an additive to coal or
petroleum combustion, the H-content of MagneGas
can burn at least half of the combustible
components in the plant exhaust that constitute
environmental problems. - There are additional savings (of the order of
several millions of dollars per year) in
scrubbing and other means to clean the exhaust.
51- Thus, Magnegas Corporation has documented
evidence that an electric power plant, by
producing MagneGas locally and injecting it into
the flame of the used fossil fuel, can increase
the production of electricity by at least 30
with the same use of fossil fuel. - The credibility of this statement is evident and
due to the fact that about 60 of the energy of
fossil fuels is wasted due to formation of
combustible CO, hydrocarbons and other
contaminants in flue gas. - These combustible exhausts are burnt off when
combined with the H2 in MagneGas. - Hence the indicated 30 gain in the production of
electricity from a given fossil fuel. - MH in fossil fuel decreases its volatility
probably due to their anomalous adsorption,
consequently attaining higher temperature which
results in a cleaner combustion. Thus the
consideration of commercial efficiency becomes
evident for all practical purposes.
52Detection of Magnecules
- Appearance of unexpected heavy MS peaks.
- Unknown character of the unexpected MS heavy
peaks. - Lack of IR signature of the unknown MS peaks.
- Changes in IR signatures.
- Changes in magnecular weights.
- Accumulation or emission of individual atoms or
molecules. - Anomalous adhesion
53MagneHydrogen
- H2 is diamagnetic and cannot acquire a total net
magnetic polarity. - The orbit of each H atom acquires a toroidal
polarization under sufficiently strong external
magnetic field. - The opposite magnetic moments of the two H atoms
explain the diamagnetic character of the hydrogen
molecule. - Intrinsic magnetic moments of nuclei and
electrons of H2 molecule are also polarized. - Creating new chemical species having bigger
specific weight due to formation of new bonds
between pairs of individual H atoms.
54MagneOxygen
- It is formed comparatively easily as oxygen is
paramagnetic. - So electrons acquire an overall magnetic
polarity. - Significant increase of the specific weight of
the oxygen requires the toroidal polarization of
at least some of the peripheral atomic electrons,
along with total magnetic polarization
55Magnecular Water (HHO)
- HHO gas is magnecular water having
- magneclusters like H H O or H H ? O
- magneplexes like H O H ? H O H
- Prior to Santilli's studies, a gaseous mixture of
2/3 ordinary hydrogen and 1/3 ordinary oxygen
gases was known under the name of Brown gas. - Both HHO and Brown gas does not require
atmospheric oxygen for combustion. Thus, does
not deplete of atmospheric oxygen. - However they differ in the fact that the former
has anomalous adsorption property and varying
thermal content.
56Magnecular Combustion
- Magnecular combustion results in high energy
output due to weak magnecular bond and stored
magnetostatic energy. - This is exploited for the industrial development
of novel clean fuels such as magnegas. - Combustion of molecular hydrogen and oxygen
- H H ½ O2 ? H2O.
- The homolytic clevage of H2 and O2 molecules for
production of free radicals require 163.7
kcal/mol - The atom recombination to produce H2O releases
221.25 kcal/mol - So, the net energy release is 57 kcal/mol.
57- Combustion of magnecular hydrogen
- H H O ? H2O
- Considering H H bond dissociation energy to be
zero - The energy output is predicted to be
approximately three times the value predicted by
molecular structures with the same atomic
constituents and combustion temperature.
58- Combustion of magnecules
- Magnecule nO2 ? mH2O kO2 lCO2 ... ?
kcal - n, m, k, l, ... are integers
- Magnecule is assumed to consist of both H2 and
CO. - This give increased energy released per each H2
molecule. - Energy balance for combustion of magnecule
- Ecombustion mEH2OkEO2lECO2...-Emagne
cule - EH2O, EO2, ECO2, ... are ground state
energies of the molecular constituents - Emagnecule is ground state energy of the
original magnecule.
59- Energy balance is calculated using dissociation
energy of the magnecule, Dmagnecule. - However, Dmagnecule is different for magnecules
of different mass and composition. - In case of chemical reactions, reaction constant
K is considered. - E.g
- H2 ½ O2 ? H2O(?H -57.5 kcal, K 1040 at T
25 oC) - i.e. total combustion of H2 gas at T 25 oC.
- Generally, for all highly exothermic reactions
(?H lt -15 kcal/mol), the reaction constant is of
high value. - The opposite direction of the reaction, H2 ½ O2
? H2O is realized only at very high temperatures,
at which K lt 1. - K 1 indicates equilibrium, while K lt 1
indicates backward reaction.
60The relation between the reaction heat, ?H and
the reaction constant, K is - 2.303RT logK
?G where, ?G ?H - T?S R 1.986 calK-1
mol-1 T is temperature in Kelvin, ?S is
the entropy of the reaction. The ?S is
numerically big if the initial reagents have
molecular structures more ordered than the end
products, i.e. there is an increase of entropy S
during the reaction. The above outline on the
reaction constant and reaction entropy helps us
to conclude that the combustion of magnegas is
characterized by a very high value of the
reaction constant (perhaps even bigger than K
1040 at T 25 oC).
61Factors favoring Magnecular Combustion
- Combustion of magnegas is a highly exothermic
reaction as- - They have a structure more ordered than the
combustion products. - So, during the combustion there is large increase
of the entropy ?S gt 0, eventually very high
value of the reaction constant K. - However, ?G is a function of temperature.
- For most elements, ?G of oxidation reactions
increases linearly with the temperature. - So, resulting oxides are less stable at high
temperatures than at low temperatures - e.g. H2O dissociating at high temperature (1000
oC)
62However, during oxidation of carbon to carbon
monoxide C CO2 ? 2CO ?G decreases with the
increase of the temperature. The number of moles
increases about twice during the reaction.
Hence, the entropy increases, ?S gt 0.
Therefore, the CO molecule is more stable at
high temperatures than at low temperatures
consequently, a better quality of the exhaust is
obtained at lower original temperatures of
magnegas.
63- High reaction rate
- Combustion of magnecules is faster than the
combustion of their molecular constituents. - According to Santilli-Shillady isochemical models
of molecular structures H2 and O2 molecules have
the usual (spherical) shape due to rotations in
their natural conventional and non-polarized
states. - However, the isochemical model of the water shows
that such configurations are not suited for the
reaction of H and O into H2O. In particular, the
orbitals of H2 and O2require a toroidal
configuration as a condition for their bonding. - Thus, magnetically polarized molecules of
hydrogen and oxygen have a bigger reaction rate
than the same molecules in un-polarized
conditions, since they have a distribution of the
valence electrons more suitable for the reaction
itself. - Evidently, a bigger reaction rate implies a
bigger power.
64- Combustion of a magnecule consisting of H2 and
CO, does not require the necessary previous
dissociation of the O2 molecule, because each
O-atom in a magnetically polarized O2 molecule
has necessary orientation required for
combustion. - So, the magnecular structure acts as a catalyst,
in which both O-atoms of the O2 molecule start to
react with the nearest pair H2?H2, or H2?CO, or
CO?CO almost simultaneously. - This also implies that less amount of external
energy is needed to activate the reaction,
resulting, in an anomalous energy release in
combustion. (activation energy is supplied by
heat) - So, the combustion of magnegas can be initiated
at smaller temperature, in comparison to that of
the simple mixture of H2 and CO gases.
65Applications of HHO Fuel additive
- The anomalous adsorption makes it a perfect
additive to other fuels. - The flash point of diesel was found to increase
from 75C to 79C on purging with HHO. - Anomalous rise of just 4C or 42C?
- This could be attributed to the magnecular
structure of the HHO which influences to form
magnecluster HHO and diesel molecules, thereby
drastically increasing its flash point. - If HHO existed as normal molecular gas then the
flash point would have decreased by half. - The adsorption of the HHO to the diesel molecules
is also expected to significantly reduce the
harmful emission of the original fuel (due to
inherent O content) and increases the thermal
output of the fuel in case of combustion.
66Applications of HHO Thermal Output
- HHO exhibits a wide range of thermal output.
- In open air flame temperature is 150C to large
releases of thermal energy depending on the
substance to which the flame is applied like
instantaneous melting of W or bricks requiring
9000C. - This anomaly is due to presence of polarized
H-atom in the HHO gas. - Instantaneous melting of bricks9 is only possible
due to the polarized hydrogen contained in the
HHO gas which rapidly penetrates into the deep
layers of the brick. - Smaller sectional area, increases penetration.
- Polarized H-atoms induces polarization of the
bricks atomic orbitals, leading to attraction of
the polarized H atoms. This leads to faster
penetration within the solid lattice causing
higher reactivity and consequently higher melting
temperature.
67Nuclear Type Hadronic Fuel (Magnecular
Combustion)
68Basic nuclear processes
Fusion
235U
1
2
Fission Product 1 A 90 to 100 Fission Product
2 A 133 to 143
69Nuclear Fusion
- It has been considered the Holy Grail of energy
- Nuclear fusion can be broadly classified as
- Low energy nuclear fusion or cold fusion
- Reported by Fleishmann, Pons and Hawkins (1989)
- Major drawback Non-reproducibility by other
laboratories. - Reason Could be due to insufficient energy
required to expose the atomic nuclei from within
the covering atomic electron cloud.
70- High energy nuclear fusion or hot fusion
- Reported by various laboratories
- Major drawback Not self sustaining and compound
nucleus undergoes fission leading to formation
radioactive wastes. - Reason Atomic electron clouds are completely
stripped off. Kinetic energy of the nuclei are
increased to overcome coulombic barrier and the
energy attained by the compound nucleus is
generally higher than the fission barrier which
results in fission reaction or nuclear decay as
prominent exit channels. - In view of this Santilli proposed new form of
nuclear energy without ionizing radiations and
radioactive waste predicted using hadronic
mechanics.
71Hadronic Energy of Nuclear Type
- Nuclear energy conventionally obtained by fission
reaction is hazardous due to generation of high
energy ionizing radiation and radioactive waste. - The shielding from these radiations is
cumbersome as well as expensive. - Disposal of the radioactive waste poses
environmental risk. - The fission reactions could be adequately
explained by quantum mechanics by considering the
fragments as point mass. - However, the same theory fails to explain nuclear
fusion because considering the reacting nuclei as
point mass was not possible. - Hence the use of hadronic mechanics to explain
nuclear fusion is necessary.
72Intermediate Controlled Nuclear Fusion (ICNF)
- Basic assumptions proposed by Prof. Santilli are-
- Nuclear force Nuclear force can be partly
represented with a Hamiltonian and partly is of
non-potential type and cannot be represented with
a Hamiltonian. - Stable nuclei According to Heisenberg-Santilli
Lie-isotopic equations the sub-nuclear particles
are in contact with each other without
appreciable overlap of their wave-functions.
Figure used by Santilli to illustrate that nuclei
have no nuclei of their own and composed of
particles in contact with each other having
mutual penetration of about 10-3 of their charge
distributions. So, the nuclear force is expected
to be partially of potential and partially of
nonpotential type, with ensuing nonunitary
character of the theory, and related
applicability of hadronic mechanics.
73- Unstable nuclei and nuclear fusion In case of
Heisenberg-Santilli Lie-admissible equation - Hermitean, H represents non-conserved total
energy - Genotopic elements R and S represents
non-potential interactions - So, irreversibility is assured.
- Lie-admissible branch of hadronic mechanics is
ideally suited to represent the decay of unstable
nuclei and nuclear fusions, since both are
irreversible over time. - Neutron synthesis Neutron is assumed (originally
conjectured by Rutherford) to be compressed
hydrogen atom. - p a e- ? n
- where a is Santillis etherino (conventional
Hilbert space)
74- Don Borghis experiment and Santillis hadronic
mechanics appropriately explains the Rutherfords
conjecture on neutron as a compressed hydrogen
atom.
An original drawing used by Santilli to
illustrate physical differences between the
hydrogen atom and the neutron synthesis from a
proton and an electron (occurring in stars).
75- The main interactions absent in the hydrogen
atom, but present in the neutron the nonlinear,
nonlocal and nonpotential interactions due to
deep wave overlapping of extended particles.
Their non-Hamiltonian character mandates a
nonunitary covering of quantum mechanics.
76An illustration of the support by the industry of
research on new clean energies requiring suitable
coverings of 20th century doctrines, depicting
the conception by Michael McDonnough, President
of BetaVoltaic, Inc., of the Rutherford-Santilli
neutron that is at the foundation of its possible
stimulated decay and related new clean energies.
77- Nuclear structure Proton is the only stable
particle and neutron is unstable comprising of
proton and electron. Santilli assumed that nuclei
are a collection of protons and neutrons, in
first approximation, while at a deeper level a
collection of mutated protons and electrons.
78Controlled Nuclear Fusion (CNF)
- It is systematic energy releasing nuclear fusion
whose reaction rate is controllable via one or
more mechanisms capable of performing the
engineering optimization of the applicable laws. - The CNF is governed by Santilli's laws for
controlled nuclear fusions - The orbitals of peripheral atomic electrons are
controlled such that nuclei are systematically
exposed. - CNF occurs when nuclei spins are either in
singlet planar coupling or triplet axial coupling.
A schematic view of the only two stable
couplings permitted by hadronic mechanics for
nuclear fusions the singlet planar coupling (A)
and the triplet axial coupling (B) . All other
spin configurations have been proved to produce
strongly repulsive forces under which no CNF is
possible.
79- The most probable CNF are those occurring at
threshold energies and without the release of
massive particles. - CNF requires trigger, an external mechanism that
forces exposed nuclei to come in fm range. - Magnecules have systematic and controlled
exposure of nuclei which have singlet planar or
triplet axial coupling.
- The ICNF proposed by Santilli are of the generic
type - where, A is the atomic number
- Z is the nuclear charge
- JP is the nuclear angular momentum
with parity - u is the nuclear energy in amu
units - TR is trigger mechanism (high voltage
DC arc in hadronic reactor)
80- Synthesis of nitrogen from carbon and deuterium
by ICNF - It was expected in nature due to lightning.
- C(12,6,O,12.0000)D(2,1,1,2.0141)TR?N(14,7
,1,14.0030)Heat - ?E 0.0111 amu 10.339MeV
- Threshold energy is supplied which is just
sufficient to expose the atomic nuclei from
within the electron cloud. - As the energy is not very high the resulting
compound nucleus has excitation energy lesser
than that required for particular or
gamma-emission. - The above reaction is carried out in sealed tanks
called hadronic reactors. - This synthesis is of industrial importance
because it yields 1010 BTU of energy per hour.
81A schematic view of the Hadronic Reactor, based
on an upgradation of the Hadronic Refineries
showing emphasis on the production and use of a
magnecular fuel in the latter, to the production
and use of heat in the former.
82- The electric arc polarizes carbon and hydrogen
atoms by forming the - C H H magnecule, having triplet axial spin
coupling. - Under a suitable trigger, the magnecule C H H
should yield a nucleus with A14, Z8, JP1 - However, that does not exist (since O(14, 8) has
spin J 0). - So, according to Prof. Santilli the nature
synthesizes a neutron from proton, electron and
etherino as, - CHH?C(12, 6, 0) 2 x p e- a ?C(12, 6, 0)
H(2, 1, 1) ? N(14, 8, 1) - The fusion reaction taking place in hadronic
reactor using deuterium as fuel have shown to
yield clean energy without formation of any
radioactive species or ionizing radiations.
83Examples of ICNF
- O(18,8,0,17.9991) C(12,6,0,12.0000) TR ?
Si(30,14,0,29.9737) ?E - ? E 0.0254 u
- The reaction verifies all conservation laws.
- The whitish powder on the edge of carbon
electrodes suggests synthesis of silica. - The controlled fusion of oxygen and carbon into
silica was done because CO2 (green house gas) is
a hadronic fuel for the production of clean
energy. - Hadronic reactor can be filled up with CO2 at
pressure. The DC arc efficiently separates it
into O2 and C. - O2 and C burns to produce CO that, in the
presence of oxygen and an arc, reproduces CO2. - Thus recovering the energy used for the
separation of CO2. - However, along with the conventional combustion,
the hadronic reactor produces a net positive
energy output due to the fusion of oxygen and
carbon into silica.
84- C(12,6,0,12.0000) He(4, 2,0,4.0026) TR ?
O(16,8,0,15.9949) ?E - E 0.0077 u
- It also verifies all conservation laws.
- The interior of the reactor was cleaned, and
various components replaced a vacuum was pulled
out of the interior chamber the reactor was
filled up with commercial grade helium at 100
psi. - It was found that oxygen content decreased to a
non-detectable amount but the CO increased from a
non-detectable amount to 424.
85- In the first step, the oxygen is synthesized at
the tip of the DC arc when hitting the carbon in
the cathode surface. - The ensuing large local heat production rapidly
expels the synthesized oxygen from the DC arc,
thus preventing any additional nuclear synthesis.
- The creation of CO is consequential due to the
great affinity of carbon and oxygen.
12. Additional confirmation of intermediate
controlled nuclear fusion without harmful
radiations or waste, Ruggero Maria Santilli,
Proceedings of the Third International Conference
on Lie-admissible Treatment of Irreversible
Processes (ICLATIP - 3), Kathmandu University,
Nepal, April (2011) pages 163-177
View of the scorched electrode12
86Particle Type Hadronic Energy Stimulated Decay
of Neutron
- Low binding energy resulting in
photo-disintegration of nuclei due to 2.22
MeV and 2.62 MeV photons respectively are
well-known. - Similarly, stimulated decay of neutrons is also a
well-known phenomenon. The prediction and its
quantitative treatment can be done by hadronic
mechanics.
87- According to Prof. Santilli, neutron is an
unlimited source of energy because it decays
releasing highly energetic electron and neutrino
that can be easily trapped with a metal shield. - It is well-known that an isolated neutron is
unstable and has half life of 15 minutes. - However, as a constituent of nuclei, it shows
high stability which has been attributed to a
strong nuclear force of attraction. - The neutron shows stimulated decay as
- TR n ? p ß
- where ß has spin zero for the conservation law
of the angular momentum. - ß also be considered either as an electron and
a neutrino or as an electron and an antietherino
with opposing spin 1/2. This difference is
irrelevant for the stimulated decay of the
neutron.
88Mechanism for stimulated decay
- Resonating photon hitting a nucleus excites the
isoelectron inside a neutron irrespective of
whether the photon penetrates or not inside the
neutron. - The excited isoelectron leaves the neutron
structure, thus causing its stimulated decay. - This is due to the fact that hadronic mechanics
predicts only one energy level for the proton and
the electron in conditions of total mutual
immersion (as in neutron). - Range of hadronic mechanics is given by the
radius of neutron (1 fm). -
- Thus, the excited isoelectron excites the proton
and reassumes its conventional quantum features
when moving in vacuum. - Numerous additional triggers are predicted by
hadronic mechanics such as photons with a
wavelength equal to the neutron size. Here, the
whole neutron is excited, rather than the
isoelectron in its interior, but the result is
always the stimulated decay.
89Double beta decay
- In this typical example of double decay first
reaction is stimulated and the second is
spontaneous9. - The original isotope should-
- 1) Admit stimulated decay of at least one of its
peripheral neutrons via one photon with a
resonating frequency verifying all conservation
laws of the energy, angular momentum, etc. - 2) The new nucleus formed should undergo
spontaneous beta decay so that with one
resonating photon there is production of two
electrons whose kinetic energy is trapped with a
metal shield to produce heat.
903) The original isotope is metallic so that,
following the emission of two electrons, it
acquires an electric charge suitable for the
production of a DC current between the metallic
isotope and the metallic shield. 4) The energy
balance is positive. 5) The initial and final
isotopes are light, natural and stable elements
so that the new energy is clean (since the
electrons can be easily trapped with a thin metal
shield), and produce non-radioactive waste.
91- E.g. double beta decay of the Mo(100, 42, 0)
- ?r (0, 0, 1) Mo (100, 42, 0) ? Tc (100, 43, 1)
ß (0, -1, 0) - Tc (100, 43, 1) ? Ru (100, 44, 0) ß (0, -1,
0) - Mo(100, 42, 0) is naturally stable with mass
99.9074771 amu - Tc(100, 43) has mass 99.9076576 amu and is
naturally unstable with spontaneous decay into
Ru(100, 44, 0) and half life of 15.8 s - Ru(100, 44) is naturally stable with mass
99.9042197 amu. - Although the mass of Mo(100, 42, 0) is smaller
than that of Tc(100, 43, 1), yet the conservation
of energy can be verified with a resonating
frequency of 0.16803 MeV (obtained for n1/7).
92- But the mass of the original isotope is bigger
than that of the final isotope for a value much
bigger than that of the resonating photon, with
usable hadronic energy (HE) power nuclear
reaction - HE M(100, 42) M(100, 44) E(?) 2 x E(e)
- 3.034 0.184 1.022MeV 1.828MeV
- where Santilli subtracts the conventional rest
energy of the two electrons because it is not
usable as a source of energy in this case. - Under the assumptions of using a coherent beam
with resonating photons hitting a sufficient mass
of Mo(100, 42, 0) suitable to produce 1020
stimulated nuclear transmutations per hour, we
have the following - Hadronic production of heat
- 2x1020 MeV/h 3x104 BTU/h,
- Hadronic production of electricity
- 2x1020 e/h 200C/h55 mA.
93Conclusion
- The clean and sustainable energy requirements can
be met using hadronic chemistry. - Magnecular combustion can be considered superior
to molecular combustion due to its weak bond,
stored magnetostatic energy and highly ordered
structure. - ICNF seems to be more promising than hot or cold
fusion in terms of reproducibility and energy
input to output ratio. - Preliminary studies indicate that stimulated beta
decay also holds promising results in clean
energy harnessing.
94THANK YOU