CHEMISTRY COMES ALIVE

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CHEMISTRY COMES ALIVE

• BASIC CHEMISTRY

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DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS

• MATTER AND ENERGY

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MATTER

• ANYTHING THAT HAS MASS AND OCCUPIES SPACE
• MASSAMOUNT OF MATTER IN THE OBJECT
• MASS REMAINS CONSTANT REGARDLESS OF GRAVITY

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STATES OF MATTER

• SOLID
• LIQUID
• GAS

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ENERGY

• ENERGY IS THE CAPACITY TO DO WORK AND EXISTS IN 2
  FORMS
• KINETIC ENERGY ENERGY OF MOTION
• POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED ENERGY

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FORMS OF ENERGY

• CHEMICAL ENERGY ENERGY STORED IN CHEMICAL BONDS
• ELECTRICAL ENERGY RESULTS FROM MOVEMENT OF
  CHARGED PARTICLES
• MECHANICAL ENERGY INVOLVED WITH MOVING MATTER
• RADIANT ENERGY ENERGY THAT TRAVELS IN WAVES
• ENERGY CAN BE CONVERTED FROM ONE FOR TO ANOTHER

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COMPOSITION OF MATTER

• ATOMS AND ELEMENTS

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BASIC TERMS

• ELEMENTS CANNOT BE BROKEN DOWN INTO SIMPLER
  SUBSTANCES BY ORDINARY CHEMICAL MEANS
• C,H,O,AND N 96 OF BODY WEIGHT
• ATOMS SMALLEST PARTICLES OF AN ELEMENT THAT
  RETAIN THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THAT ELEMENT
• ELEMENTS ARE DESIGNATED BY 1 OR 2 LETTER ATOMIC
  SYMBOLS

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE

• ATOM HAS NUCLEUS WITH PROTONS(, 1 AMU) AND
  NEUTRONS(NO CHARGE, 1 AMU)
• ELECTRONS HAVE A NEG. CHARGE AND MOVE AROUND
  THE NUCLEUS.(0 AMU)
• ATOMS ARE ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL (PRO. ELEC.)
• PLANETARY MODEL 2-D
• ORBITAL MODEL 3-D

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IDENTIFYING ELEMENTS

• ELEMENTS ARE IDENTIFIED BASED ON THEIR NUMBER OF
  P,N, AND E.

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ATOMIC NUMBER

• ATOMIC NUMBER OF PROTONS
• SINCE PROTONS ELECTRONS IN AN ELECTRICALLY
  NEUTRAL ATOM, THE ATOMIC ALSO TELLS US OF
  ELECTRONS

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MASS AND ISOTOPES

• MASS PROTONS NEUTRONS
• ELECTRON IS WEIGHTLESS SO IT IS IGNORED WHEN
  CALCULATING MASS
• ISOTOPES VARIATIONS OF AN ATOM THAT HAVE THE
  SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS, BUT DIFFERING NUMBERS OF
  NEUTRONS

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ATOMIC WEIGHT

• AVERAGE OF THE RELATIVE WEIGHTS OF ALL OF THE
  ISOTOPES OF AN ELEMENT

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RADIOISOTOPES

• HEAVIER, UNSTABLE ISOTOPES OF AN ELEMENT THAT
  SPONTANEOUSLY DECOMPOSE INTO MORE STABLE FORMS
• TIME REQUIRED FOR A RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE TO LOSE
  ONE-HALF OF ITS RADIOACTIVITY IS CALLED THE
  HALF-LIFE

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HOW MATTER IS COMBINED

• MOLECULES AND MIXTURES

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MOLECULES AND COMPOUNDS

• MOLECULE A COMBINATION OF TWO OR MORE ATOMS
• 2 OR MORE ATOMS OF THE SAME ELEMENT IS CALLED A
  MOLECULE OF THAT ELEMENT
• COMPOUND 2 OR MORE ATOMS OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS
  COMBINED

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MIXTURES

• SUBSTANCES MADE OF 2 OR MORE COMPONENTS MIXED
  PHYSICALLY
• SOLUTIONS ARE HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES OF COMPOUNDS
  THAT MAY BE SOLID, LIQUID, OR GAS
• SOLUTIONS HAVE SOLVENTS AND SOLUTES
• MAY BE DESCRIBED BY THEIR CONCENTRATIONS
  (MOLARITY)

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MIXTURES CONT.

• COLLOIDS HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES
• SUSPENSIONS HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES WITH LARGE,
  OFTEN VISIBLE SOLUTES THAT TEND TO SETTLE OUT

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DISTINGUISHING MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

• MAIN DIFFERENCE NO CHEMICAL BONDING BETWEEN
  MOLECULES OF A MIXTURE
• MIXTURES CAN BE SEPARATED BY PHYSICAL MEANS,
  COMPOUNDS MUST BE SEPARATED BY CHEMICAL MEANS
• HOMOGENEOUS VS. HETEROGENEOUS

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CHEMICAL BONDS

• AN ENERGY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ELECTRONS OF
  REACTING ATOMS

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ROLE OF ELECTRONS IN CHEMICAL BONDING

• ELECTRONS OCCUPY ELECTRON SHELLS AROUND THE
  NUCLEUS THAT REPRESENT DIFFERENT ENERGY LEVELS
• EACH ELECTRON SHELL HOLDS A SPECIFIC OF
  ELECTRONS AND TEND TO BE FILLED FROM CLOSEST TO
  THE NUCLEUS OUT.
• EXCEPT FOR THE 1ST ENERGY LEVEL, ATOMS ARE STABLE
  WITH EIGHT ELECTRONS IN THEIR VALENCE SHELL (THE
  OCTET RULE)

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TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
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IONIC BONDS

• CHEMICAL BONDS THAT TRANSFER ONE OR MORE
  ELECTRONS FROM ONE ATOM TO ANOTHER
• IONS ARE CHARGED PARTICLES, EITHER ANIONS (NEG)
  OR CATIONS (POS)
• CRYSTALS ARE LARGE STRUCTURES OF CATIONS AND
  ANIONS HELD TOGETHER BY IONIC BONDS.

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COVALENT BONDS

• SHARE ELECTRONS
• NONPOLAR COVALENT BONDS SHARE ELECTRONS EVENLY
• POLAR COVALENT BONDS SHARE ELECTRONS UNEVENLY
  (OFTEN REFERRED TO AS A DIPOLE)

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HYDROGEN BONDS

• WEAK ATTRACTIONS THAT FORM BETWEEN PARTIALLY
  CHARGED ATOMS FOUND IN POLAR MOLECULES
• HYDROGEN BONDS BETWEEN WATER MOLECULES CAUSES
  SURFACE TENSION

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CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• OCCUR WHENEVER BONDS ARE FORMED, REARRANGED, OR
  BROKEN
• A CHEMICAL EQUATION DESCRIBES WHAT HAPPENS IN A
  REACTION
• INCLUDES REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS
• MUST BE BALANCED

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PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• SYNTHESIS (COMBINATION) RXN LARGER MOLECULES
  ARE FORMED FROM SMALLER MOLECULES
• DECOMPOSITION RXN A MOLECULE IS BROKEN DOWN
  INTO SMALLER MOLECULES
• EXCHANGE (DISPLACEMENT) RXN INVOLVE BOTH SYN.
  AND DECOMP.
• OXIDATION-REDUCTION RXN SPECIAL ECHANGE RXNS IN
  WHICH ELECTRONS ARE EXCHANGED BETWEEN REACTANTS

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ENERGY FLOW IN CHEM. RXNS

• EXERGONIC RXNS RELEASE ENERGY AS A PRODUCT, WHILE
  ENDERGONIC RXNS ABSORB ENERGY

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REVERSIBILITY OF CHEMICAL RXNS

• ALL CHEM RXNS ARE THEORETICALLY REVERSIBLE
• WHEN THE RATE OF THE FORWARD RXN THE RATE OF
  THE REVERSE RXN, THE RXNS HAVE REACHED A CHEMICAL
  EQUILIBRIUM

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FACTORS INFLUENCING RATE OF CHEMICAL RXNS

• CHEMICALS REACT WHEN THEY COLLIDE WITH ENOUGH
  FORCE TO OVERCOME THE REPULSION BY THEIR
  ELECTRONS
• INCREASE IN TEMP. INCREASES RATE
• SMALLER PARTICLES FASTER RATE
• HIGHER CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS FASTER RATE
• CATALYSTS INCREASE RATE WITHOUT TAKING PART IN
  THE RXN

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BIOCHEMISTRY

• INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

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WATER

• MOST IMPORTANT INORGANIC MOLECULE, MAKES UP 60 TO
  80 OF THE VOLUME OF MOST LIVING CELLS
• HAS A HIGH HEAT CAPACITY
• HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
• POLAR MOLECULE
• UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
• IMPORTANT REACTANT
• FORMS A PROTECTIVE CUSHION AROUND ORGANS

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SALTS

• IONIC COMPOUNDS
• WHEN DISSOLVED IN WATER, THEY DISSOCIATE INTO
  THEIR COMPONENT IONS

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ACIDS AND BASES

• ACIDS AKA PROTON DONORS, DISSOCIATE IN H2O TO
  YIELD HYDROGEN IONS AND ANIONS
• BASES AKA PROTON ACCEPTORS, ABSORB HYDROGEN
  IONS
• PH UNITS RELATIVE CONCENTRATION OF HYDROGEN
  IONS
• GREATER HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION ACIDIC
• GREATER HYDROXYL ION CONCENTRATION BASIC
  (ALKALINE)

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ACIDS AND BASES CONT.

• NEUTRALIZATION WHEN AN ACID AND A BASE ARE
  MIXED TOGETHER. DISPLACEMENT REACTION THAT FORMS
  SALT AND WATER
• BUFFERS RESIST LARGE FLUCTUATIONS IN PH THAT
  WOULD BE DAMAGING TO LIVING TISSUES

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BIOCHEMISTRY

• ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

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CARBOHYDRATES

• GROUP OF MOLECULES INCLUDING SUGARS AND STARCHES
• CONTAIN CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND OXYGEN
• MAIN FUNCTION IS TO PROVIDE CELLULAR FUEL
• MONOSACCHARIDES ARE SINGLE RING STRUCTURES
  (SIMPLE SUGARS)
• DISACCHARIDES 2 MONOSACCHARIDES JOINED BY
  DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS
• POLYSACCHARIDES LONG CHAINS OF MONOSACCHARIDES
  JOINED BY DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

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LIPIDS

• INSOLUBLE IN H2O BUT DISSOLVE READILY IN NONPOLAR
  SOLVENTS
• NEUTRAL FATS (AKA TRIGLYCERIDES OR
  TRIACYGLYCEROLS) ARE COMMONLY KNOWN AS FATS
  (SOLIDS) AND OILS(LIQUID)
• PHOSPHOLIPIDS ARE DIGLYCERIDES WITH A PHOSPHORUS
  CONTAINING HEAD AND TWO FATTY ACID TAILS
• STEROIDS FLAT WITH 4 INTERLOCKING HYDROCARBON
  RINGS
• EICOSANOIDS DIVERSE LIPIDS DERIVED FROM
  ARACHIDONIC ACID

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PROTEINS

• COMPOSE 10 TO 30 OF CELL MASS
• BASIC STRUCTURAL MATERIAL OF THE BODY
• PLAY VITAL ROLES IN CELL FUNCTION
• LONG CHAINS OF AMINO ACIDS CONNECTED BY PEPTIDE
  BONDS

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PROTEINS HAVE 4 STRUCTURAL LEVELS

• PRIMARY STRUCTURE LINEAR SEQUENCE OF AMINO
  ACIDS
• SECONDARY STRUCTURE PROTEINS TWIST AND TURN ON
  THEMSELVES
• TERTIARY PROTEIN FOLDS UP ON ITSELF TO FORM A
  BALL LIKE STRUCTURE
• QUATERNARY 2 OR MORE POLYPEPTIDE CHAINS GROUPED
  TOGETHER TO FORM A COMPLEX PROTEIN

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FIBROUS AND GLOBULAR PROTEINS

• FIBROUS PROTEINS ARE EXTENDED AND STRANDLIKE.
  THEY ARE KNOWN AS STRUCTURAL PROTEINS AND MOST
  HAVE ONLY SECONDARY STRUCTURE.
• GLOBULAR PROTEINS ARE COMPACT, SPHERICAL
  STRUCTURES. WATER SOLUBLE AND CHEMICALLY ACTIVE.
• FIBROUS PROTEINS ARE STABLE, BUT GLOBULAR
  PROTEINS ARE SUSCEPTIBLE TO DENATURING (LOSING
  THEIR SHAPE DUE TO BREAKING HYDROGEN BONDS)

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PROTEIN DENATURATION

• MAY OCCUR WHEN GLOBULAR PROTEINS ARE SUBJECTED TO
  A VARIETY OF CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGES IN
  THEIR ENVIRONMENT
• CHAPERONINS TYPE OF GLOBULAR PROTEIN THAT HELP
  PROTEINS ACHIEVE THIR THREE DIMENSIONAL SHAPE

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ENZYMES AND ENZYME ACTIVITY

• ENZYMES GLOBULAR PROTEINS THAT ACT AS
  BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS
• MAY BE PURELY ENZYME OR MAY CONSIST OF 2 PARTS
  COLLECTIVELY CALLED A HOLOENZYME
• EACH ENZYME IS CHEMICALLY SPECIFIC
• WORK BY LOWERING THE ACTIVATION ENERGY OF A
  REACTION

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NUCLEIC ACIDS (DNA AND RNA)

• COMPOSED OF C,O,H,N, AND P
• LARGEST MOLECULES IN THE BODY
• NUCLEOTIDES ARE THE STRUCTURAL UNITS OF NUCLEIC
  ACIDS
• NUCLEOTIDE PENTOSE SUGAR, PHOSPHATE GROUP, AND
  NITROGEN CONTAINING BASE
• 5 NITROGENOUS BASES ADENINE, GUANINE, THYMINE,
  CYTOSINE, AND URACIL

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DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)

• GENETIC MATERIAL FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
• REPLICATES BEFORE CELL DIVISION
• PROVIDES INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING ALL PROTEINS
• DOUBLE STRANDED CONTAINING A,T,C,G, AND
  DEOXYRIBOSE
• COMPLEMENTARY BASES A TO T AND C TO G

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RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)

• LOCATED OUTSIDE OF THE NUCLEUS
• USED TO MAKE PROTEINS
• SINGLE STRANDED CONTAINING A,U,C,G,AND RIBOSE
• COMPLEMENTARY BASES A TO U AND C TO G

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ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)

• ENERGY CURRENCY USED BY THE CELL
• ADENINE CONTAINING RNA NUCLEOTIDE THAT HAS 2
  ADDITIONAL PHOSPHATE GROUPS ATTACHED
• PHOSPHATE GROUPS CONNECTED BY HIGH ENERGY BONDS
• BREAKING THE BONDS RELEASES THE ENEREGY TO DO
  WORK IN THE CELL

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