AFFECT (emotion) AND BEHAVIOR ( the result of motivation)

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• AFFECT (emotion) AND BEHAVIOR ( the result of
  motivation)

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Your feelings are obviously important to you but

• What is Affect?
• complex /many components
• physiological responses (autonomic nervous
  system)
• cognitive events
• sensory input
• behavioral correlates

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What is the Role of emotion?
1. Some theorist argue that Feelings are mere
epiphenomena of motivation and may only serve as
cues to facilitate social communication ( Darwin)
consider that most people do not have a "poker
face," and we generally find a person's emotional
response to be obvious. -Knowing how someone
feels will help us evaluate how they will act.
2. To Motivate behavior In contrast, other
theorists argue that affect is a primary
motivator of behavior Affective state primarily
may serve to produce behavioral responses and
shape behavior (emotion may be reinforcing) ,
Consequently then affect may be motivational in
nature. (Although it may be overly simplistic,
we will take the perspective here that emotion
and motivation are interlinked and consider them
as one general concept).
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HOW MANY EMOTIONS ARE THERE? A question that
raises controversy and has no universally agreed
upon answer.

• Proposed Basic Emotions Basis for Inclusion
• Plutchik
• Acceptance, anger, anticipation, disgust, joy,
  fear, sadness, surprise Relation to
  adaptive biological processes
• Arnold
• Anger, aversion, courage, dejection, desire,
  despair, fear, hate, hope, love, sadness
  Relation to action tendencies
• Ekman, Friesen, and Ellsworth
• Anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise
  Universal facial expressions
• Frijda
• Desire, happiness, interest, surprise, wonder,
  sorrow Forms of action readiness
• Gray
• Rage and terror, anxiety, joy Hardwired
• Izard
• Anger, contempt, disgust, distress, fear, guilt,
• interest, joy, shame, surprise Hardwired

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• McDougall
• Anger, disgust, elation, fear, subjection,
  Relation to instincts
• tender-emotion, wonder
• Mowrer
• Pain, pleasure Unlearned emotional states
• Oatley and Johnson-Laird
• Anger, disgust, anxiety, happiness, sadness Do
  not require propositional content
• Panksepp
• Expectancy, fear, rage, panic Hardwired
• fear, joy, shame, surprise
• Tomkins
• Anger, interest, contempt, disgust, distress,
  Density of neural firing
• Watson

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Historical theories of emotion vs common sense
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• James-Lange theory
• A visceral experience (gut reaction) is labeled
  as an emotional state.
• We have some autonomic reaction to stimuli. We
  observe these physical sensations and label them
  as feelings.

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James thought that the body acted like a
sounding board, struck by neural impulses to
create the waves of change that could then be
sensed by the brain as a quality of emotional
feeling. Thus, the varieties and shades of
emotion are as infinite as the bodily patterns
that neural action can create.
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• EXAMPLE You are walking down a dark alley late
  at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you
  begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and
  your breathing deepens.  You notice these
  physiological changes and interpret them as your
  body's preparation for a fearful situation.  You
  then experience fear.
•  

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Hohmann (1966) A Test Of the James-Lange Theory?

• Hypothesis You need the visceral body in order
  to feel emotions.
• Test Interview people with high vs. low spinal
  cord injuries
• High spinal cord injury
• Sometimes I act angry... But it doesnt have
  the heat to it that it used to. Its a mental
  kind of anger.

Hohman, 1966, pp. 150-151 (Carlson)
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Support for James-Lange Theory
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Problems for James-Lange?

• The range of emotions is apparently much broader
  and more complex than the range of visceral
  reactions.
• Nonetheless, recent advances in
  physiological measurements (eg, PET scans)
  suggest the physiological correlates of
  emotional states are more specific than once
  thought.
• -Even though James predicted that loss of bodily
  sensation (eg, through spinal injury) would
  depress emotions, this is not fully supported
  (some people report an increase in emotional
  intensity).
• The viscera are largely unresponsive and react
  relatively slowly (i.e. - we often 'feel' the
  emotion before the physiological changes have
  occurred.)
• Visceral responses appear the same no matter what
  the reported emotion.
• Although James proposed immediate visceral
  responses create emotion,
• recent research indicates that some emotional
  changes may take a long time to develop.

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New Support for the James-Lange?

• Theory? Ekman and Friesens Facial Feedback
  Hypothesis
• Facial expressions appear to be innate.
• People of all cultures show six basic emotional
  expressions happiness, sadness, surprise, fear,
  anger, and disgust.
• Even the blind and deaf smile and laugh when they
  are happy.

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Ekman and Friesens Facial Feedback Hypothesis
(Renewed support for the James-Lange theory?)

• Universally recognized facial expressions

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The Face may actually be an organ of visceral
function
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The Facial Feedback Hypothesis and the James
Lange theory

• The facial feed back hypothesis holds that facial
  expressions may be crucial to the experience of
  an emotional state, and may even cause emotional
  reactions.
• Ekman found that actors moving their faces
  according to explicit instructions showed
  physiological responses appropriate to their
  facial expressions.
• Strack (1988) found that people who held a pencil
  between their teeth rated cartoons funnier than
  those who held it between their lips.

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Ekmans Facial Feedback Theory Problems?

• Response to Facial Posing are not especially
  strong
• ACTORS?...feel?
• Masking emotion should lead to suppression of
  emotionbut this is not a clear result of masking.

Facial expressions have an effect on
self-reported anger and happiness
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Cannon-Bard theory

• When presented with a stimulus, the thalamus
  activates both a physiological reaction and an
  emotional response.
• The thalamus simultaneously signals the autonomic
  nervous system and the cerebral cortex.
• EXAMPLE  You are walking down a dark alley late
  at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you
  begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and
  your breathing deepens.  At the same time as
  these physiological changes occur you also
  experience the emotion of fear.

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Problems for Cannon-Bard?

• The Cannon-Bard theory argues that we experience
  physiological and emotional arousal at the same
  time,
• but gives no attention to the role of thoughts
  (interpretation) or behavioral responses.  
• Cannon argued that the Thalamus was the emotion
  center of the brain,
• but we now know that there are many brain areas
  involved in emotionalityesp. the amygdala
•  

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cognitive-appraisal theories

• Schachter-Singer theory (the "two factor theory)
• A stimulus causes physiological arousal this is
  considered in light of environmental and social
  cues.
• The arousal is then cognitively interpreted as an
  emotional state based on the cues.
• In other words, the environment, particularly the
  behavior of other people, is used to explain the
  physiological state.
• Events significant to one's own well-being are
  particularly important in determining emotional
  response.

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EXAMPLE  You are walking down a dark alley late
at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you
begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and
your breathing deepens.  Upon noticing this
arousal you realize that you are walking down a
dark alley by yourself.  This behavior is
dangerous and therefore you feel the emotion of
fear.

1. Cognitive Theory (formerly Schacter-Singer Theory)

Environmental Cues
Stimulus
Cerebral Cortex
Emotion
Physiological Reaction
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The Schachter theory The classic supproxin
study

• Hypothesis The same bodily reaction will cause
  one emotion in one situation, and another emotion
  in a different situation.
• Give people a dose of adrenaline
• Put them in different situations
• What happens?

FEAR
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The "Suproxin" experiment

• Men were given epinephrine, which causes
  sympathetic arousal. The subject was either
  informed or uninformed as to the drugs effects.
• A confederate behaved in one of two ways happy
  or angry.
• The subjects responded accordingly (but only when
  they had not been told that the drug would cause
  an increase in heart rate, etc).

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The Schachter theory

• Schachter Singer 1962

(know what pill does)
(didnt take pill)
Least angry
VERY ANGRY!
Medium angry!
VERY EXCITED!
Least excited
Medium excited!
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Lazarus Theory Lazarus Theory argues that
a thought (cognition) must come before any
emotion or physiological arousal.  In other
words, you must first think about your situation
before you can experience an emotion. EXAMPLE 
You are walking down a dark alley late at night. 
You hear footsteps behind you and you think it
may be a mugger so you begin to tremble, your
heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens
and at the same time experience fear. 
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Problems for Appraisal Theories?

• Cognitive appraisal of a situation is necessary
  for the experience of emotion and Behavioral
  responses??
• many studies now indicate that we may be
  emotionally affected and motivated without
  awareness.

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Dual Process Theory

• Two primary pathways from the thalamus mediate
  the processing of cognition, emotional valence
  and behavioral response.
• The thalamus projects sensory information to the
  Amygdala first ( fast pathway).
• The thalamus also projects information to the
  cerebral cortices where deliberate/rationale
  information processing occurs ( slow pathway) and
  intentional/conscious responses may be produced.

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Dual Process

• The Amygdala initiates fast (automatic/unconscious
  ?) affective responses through efferent
  pathways to the hypothalamus and other lower
  brain regions.
• The Amygdala also relays info to the frontal
  lobes where deliberate response processing may be
  influenced unconsciously ( cognitive bias?)

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Dual Process Theories
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Cognitive Bias?

• Underlying motivations Bias cognitive processes.
• appear to exist and influence a broad range of
  cognitive functions from attention, memory and
  perceptual interpretations (e.g., stereotypes),
  to decision making and behavioral responses
  (Bargh Chartrand, 1999).

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cognitive bias
automatic, effortless, relatively fast,
independent from consciousness and
intention Reber, 1993 Remillard and Clark,
2001 Hasher Zacks, 1979 Schneider, Dumais,
Shiffrin, 1984 Sherman, Gawronski, Gonsalkorale,
Hugenberg, Allen and Groom, 2008 but see
Okon-Singer, Hadas, Tzelgov, Joseph, Henik,
Avishai, 2007. I
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Cog bias

• Major sources of evidence support this theory
  (see MacCleod, 2004 for partial review).
• Typically studied through implicit test
  procedures such as the
• Modified (emotional) Stroop test
• many other test procedures have been used

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The Stroop Test procedure

• Subjects required to respond to each stimuli
  among a long list of stimuli (typically word
  stimuli) as rapidly as possible based on the
  color of the words font color. There are a
  number of variations but in a simple
  representation of this task subjects may be asked
  to press one button if a word is presented with
  a blue font and a different button if the word
  has a red font.
• Most of the stimuli have relatively neutral
  motivational valence, but some of the stimuli are
  intended to be motivationally salient.
• Eg

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• DICTIONARY
• Subject presses the 1 key as fast as possible

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• MURDER
• Subject presses the 3 key as fast as possible

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Interpretation of Modified Stroop RTs..

• Though the task instructions are to ignore the
  word and respond only to the color,
• Reliable differences in RT are thought to reflect
  the relative attention-grabbing power of the word
  meaning that are processed Automatically.

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Such tests have revealed reliable differences in
RT for stimuli that relate to inferred
motivational states across samples of people
with known motivational problems

• Cognitive Bias has been indicated in subjects
  with clinically diagnosed
• Depression
• Anxiety
• Drug dependence
• Eating disorders studies.
• And for subjects with other obvious motivational
  tendencies such as inmates incarcerated for
  violent offenses
• etc
• Not as well studied in normal populations