Modal Model of the Mind

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Modal Model of the Mind
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Modal Model of the Mind

• Three memory store that differ in function,
  capacity and duration
• Control processes - control movement of
  information within and between memory stores

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Sensory Memory Store

• Function - holds information long enough to be
  processed for basic physical characteristics
• Capacity - large
• can hold many items at once
• Duration - very brief retention of images
• .3 sec for visual info
• 2 sec for auditory info

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Sensory Memory Store

• Divided into two subtypes
• iconic memory - visual information
• echoic memory - auditory information
• Visual or iconic memory was discovered by
  Sperling in 1960

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Sperlings Experiment

• Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 seconds
• Report as many letters as possible
• Subjects recall only half of the letters
• Was this because subjects didnt have enough
  time to view entire matrix? No
• How did Sperling know this?

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Sperlings Experiment

• Sperling showed people can see and recall ALL the
  letters momentarily
• Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately
  after matrix disappeared
• tone signaled 1 row to report
• recall was almost perfect

• Memory for image fades after 1/3 seconds or so,
  making report of entire display hard to do

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Sperlings Iconic Memory Experiment
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Sperlings Iconic Memory Experiment
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Sperlings Iconic Memory Experiment
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Sperlings Iconic Memory Experiment
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Sperlings Iconic Memory Experiment
G V U L S J N A Z

A M K X F Q O U N
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What Letters Do You See?
..
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What Letters Do You See?
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What Letters Do You See?
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What Letters Do You See?
..
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What Letters Do You See?
..
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Sensory Memory Store

• Sensory memory forms automatically, without
  attention or interpretation
• Attention is needed to transfer information to
  working memory

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Working Memory Store
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Working Memory Store

• Function - conscious processing of information
• where information is actively worked on
• Capacity - limited (holds 7 /- 2 items)
• Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)
• Code - often based on sound or speech even with
  visual inputs

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Working Memory Store

• What happens if you need to keep information in
  working memory longer than 30 seconds?
• To demonstrate, memorize the following phone
  number (presented one digit at a time)...

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Working Memory Store
857-9163

• What is the number?

The number lasted in your working memory longer
than 30 seconds So, how were you able to remember
the number?
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Maintenance Rehearsal

• Mental or verbal repetition of information

Allows information to remain in working memory
longer than the usual 30 seconds
Maintenance rehearsal
Working or Short-term Memory
Sensory Memory
Attention
Sensory Input
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Maintenance Rehearsal

• What happens if you cant use maintenance
  rehearsal?
• Memory decays quickly
• To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number
  (presented one digit at a time)
• BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by sevens
  (i.e., 1014, 1007, 1000 etc.)

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Working Memory Store
628-5094

• What is the number?

Without rehearsal, memory fades
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Petersons STM Task

• Test of memory for 3-letter nonsense syllables
• Participants count backwards for a few seconds,
  then recall
• Without rehearsal, memory fades

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Working Memory Model

• Baddeley (1992)
• 3 interacting components

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Working Memory Model

• Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and
  spatial info
• Phonological loop - holds verbal information
• Central executive - coordinates all activities of
  working memory brings new information into
  working memory from sensory and long-term memory

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Long-Term Memory Store

• Once information passes from sensory to working
  memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory

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Long-Term Memory Store

• Function - organizes and stores information
• more passive form of storage than working memory
• Unlimited capacity
• Duration - thought by some to be permanent

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Long-Term Memory Store

• Encoding - process that controls movement from
  working to long-term memory store
• Retrieval - process that controls flow of
  information from long-term to working memory store

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Summary

• Modal model of memory
• three memory stores (sensory, working and
  long-term memory)
• control processes (attention, maintenance
  rehearsal, encoding and retrieval) govern
  movement of information within and between stores

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Review of Long-Term Memory

• Organizes and stores information
• Capacity unlimited
• Thought by some to be permanent
• Encoding transfers info from STM to LTM

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Elaboration

• Focus on meaning of information to encode it into
  LTM
• dont simply repeat items over and over
• tie item to other info in memory
• also called elaborative rehearsal

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Ways to Use Elaboration

• Actively question new information
• Think about its implications
• Relate information to things you already know
• Generate own examples of concepts
• Dont highlight passage as you read
• focus on the ideas in the text

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Which Level is More Effective?

• Elaboration leads to better recall than shallow
  processing

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More Evidence for Elaboration

• Positive correlation between grades and use of
  elaboration in 5th grade students
• In an experiment, college students assigned to
  use elaboration received higher grades than
  students not taught elaboration

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Organization

• Chunking
• Hierarchical organization

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Chunking

• Grouping small bits of information into larger
  units of information
• expands working memory load
• Which is easier to remember?
• 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
• 483 792 516

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Hierarchical Organization

• Related items clustered together to form
  categories
• Related categories clustered to form higher-order
  categories
• Remember list items better if list presented in
  categories
• poorer recall if presented randomly
• Even if list items are random, people still
  organize info in some logical pattern

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Hierarchical Organization
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Visualization

• Dual coding theory
• Key word method
• Method of loci

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Review of Long-Term Memory

• Retrieval transfers info from LTM to STM
• Forgetting - inability to retrieve previously
  available information
• Why do people forget?

Maintenance Rehearsal
Working or Short-term Memory
Sensory Memory
Encoding
Long-term memory
Attention
Sensory Input
Retrieval
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Forgetting Theories

• Encoding failure
• Role of time
• Interference theories

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Forgetting as Encoding Failure

• Information never encoded into LTM

X
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Encoding Failure Demonstrations

• What letters accompany the number 5 on your
  telephone?
• Where is the number 0 on your calculator?
• According to this theory, objects seen
  frequently, but information is never encoded into
  LTM

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Forgetting as Retrieval Failure

• Not all forgetting is due to encoding failures
• Sometimes information IS encoded into LTM, but we
  cant retrieve it

X
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Role of Time Decay Theory

• Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused
• Time plays critical role
• Ability to retrieve info declines with time after
  original encoding
• Problem Many things change with time.
  Something else may change and actually cause
  forgetting Interference

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Interference Theories

• Memories interfering with memories
• Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time
• Caused by one memory competing with or replacing
  another memory
• Two types of interference

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Two Types of Interference
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Retroactive Interference

• When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD
  information
• Example When new phone number interferes with
  ability to remember old phone number

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Retroactive Interference

• Example Learning a new language interferes with
  ability to remember old language

F-
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Proactive Interference

• Opposite of retroactive interference
• When an OLD memory interferes with remembering
  NEW information
• Example Memories of where you parked your car on
  campus the past week interferes with ability find
  car today

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Proactive Interference

• Example Previously learned language interferes
  with ability to remember newly learned language

F-
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Review of Interference Theory

• Retroactive Interference
• Learn A Learn B Recall A, B interferes
• Proactive Interference
• Learn A Learn B Recall B, A interferes
• Interference reflects competition between
  responses.

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Review of Long-Term Memory

• Retrieval transfers info from LTM to STM
• How is information organized so that it may be
  easily retrieved?

Maintenance Rehearsal
Working or Short-term Memory
Sensory Memory
Encoding
Long-term memory
Attention
Sensory Input
Retrieval
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Are Memories Organized?

• Demonstration
• recite the days of the week
• recite the days of the week in alphabetical order
• demonstrates that long-term memory is organized
• not just a random jumble of information
• How are memories organized?

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Demonstration

• List of words will be read one at a time
• Recall as many words as possible

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Demonstration

• Look at your sheet
• Is there a pattern to your answers?
• Most list several fruits, then vehicles, then
  furniture (or vice versa)

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Types of Mental Associations

• Association by contiguity
• concepts are associated because they occur
  together in a persons previous experience
• Association by similarity
• concepts with shared properties are associated

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Network Model

• Attempt to depict structure of memory as concepts
  linked by associations

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Network Models

• Links between concepts
• common properties provide basis for mental link
• Shorter path between two concepts stronger
  association in memory
• Activation of a concept starts decremental spread
  of activity to nearby concepts
• Also known as the spreading-activation model

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Retrieval Cue Theories

• Retrieval cue - a clue, prompt or hint that can
  help memory retrieval
• Forgetting is the result of using improper
  retrieval cues

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Encoding Specificity Principle

• Learn word list
• generate cue when see word (jam - jelly)
• at recall cues given as retrieval aid(jelly or
  traffic)
• Cues generated during learning (jelly) more
  effective during retrieval than new cues (traffic)

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Context-Dependent Memory

• Improved ability to remember if tested in the
  same environment as the initial learning
  environment
• better recall if tested in classroom where you
  initially learned info than if moved to a new
  classroom
• if learning room smells of chocolate or
  mothballs, people will recall more info if tested
  in room with the same smell compared to different
  smell or no smell at all

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Context-Dependent Effects

• Compare words learned underwater vs on land
• Words heard underwater are best recalled
  underwater
• Words heard on land are best recalled on land

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Context Dependent Effects

• Time of day is also important

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State-Dependent Memory

• Recall improved if internal physiological or
  emotional state is the same during testing and
  initial encoding
• Context vs State dependent
• Context-dependent - external, environmental
  factors
• State-dependent - internal, physiological factors

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State-Dependent Effects

• Mood or emotions also a factor
• Bipolar depressives
• information learned in manic state, recall more
  if testing done during manic state
• information learned in depressed state, recall
  more if testing done during depressed state

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State Dependent Effects
But not as well as sober all the way!
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Memory Construction

• Recall not an exact replica of original events
• Recall a construction built and rebuilt from
  various sources
• Often fit memories into existing beliefs

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Schema Theories

• Schema - mental representation of an object,
  scene or event
• example schema of a countryside may include
  green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc.
• Scripts - type of schema
• mental organization of events in time
• example of a classroom script come into class,
  sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor
  begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again,
  leave class, etc.
• Schemas scripts provide framework for new
  information

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Eyewitness Testimony

• Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new
  info into existing schemas
• Eyewitnesses usually see something complex just
  once then have to remember it
• Sometimes new information is distorted by
• fitting into an existing schema
• subsequent information (famous experiment by
  Loftus)

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Loftus Experiment

• Subjects shown video of an accident between two
  cars
• Some subjects asked How fast were the cars going
  when they smashed into each other?
• Others asked How fast were the cars going when
  they hit each other?

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Loftuss Results

• Speed estimates depended on how the question was
  phrased
• Subjects memory for broken glass also depended on
  the phrasing of the speed question.
• But this was a false memory there was no broken
  glass

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Long-term Memory Systems
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Explicit Memory

• Also known as declarative or conscious memory
• Properties
• memory consciously recalled or declared
• Can use to directly respond to a question
• Two subtypes of explicit memory

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Subtypes of Explicit Memory
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Episodic Memory

• Memory tied to your own personal experiences
• Examples
• what did you have for dinner?
• do you like to eat caramel apples?
• Why are these explicit memories?
• Because you can actively declare your answers to
  these questions

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Semantic Memory

• Memory not tied to personal events
• General facts and definitions about the world
• Examples
• who was George Washington?
• what is a cloud?
• what is the climate at the north pole?
• These are explicit memories because you can
  describe what you know about them.
• Unlike episodic memories, your knowledge does NOT
  include your personal experience
• i.e., You may never have been to the north pole
  but do know about it.

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Implicit Memory

• Also known as nondeclarative memory
• Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does
  not enter consciousness
• Three subtypes

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Subtypes of Implicit Memory
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Classical Conditioning

• Studied earlier
• Implicit because it is automatically retrieved

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Procedural Memory

• Memory that enables you to perform specific
  learned skills or habitual responses
• Examples
• Riding a bike
• How to speak grammatically
• Tying your shoe laces
• Why are these procedural memories implicit?
• Cant readily describe their contents
• try describing how to tie your shoes
• They are automatically retrieved when appropriate

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Priming

• Priming is influence of one memory on another
• priming is implicit because it does not depend on
  awareness and is automatic
• Here is a demonstration

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Priming Demonstration

• Unscramble the following words
• O R E S
• L T E P A
• K T A L S
• TSME
• L O B S O M S
• ELAF

• ROSE
• PETAL
• STALK
• STEM
• BLOSSOM

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Priming Demonstration

• ELAF LEAF
• Why not respond FLEA?
• Because flower parts were primed (flower power)

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Priming

• Activation of one or more existing memories by a
  stimulus
• Activation not a conscious decision
• BUT, can effect subsequent thoughts and actions
• Two types of priming

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Two Types of Priming
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Conceptual Priming

• The semantic meaning of priming stimulus
  influences your encoding or retrieval
• Thought to involve activation of concepts stored
  in semantic memory
• Example Flower power priming demonstration
• Does not depend on sense modality pictures can
  conceptually prime sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE SHOWS

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Priming across modalities

• Look at the picture . Then when the instructor
  says a word, write it down.

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Perceptual Priming

• Prime enhances ability to identify a test
  stimulus based on its physical features
• Does not work across sense modalities

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Perceptual Priming

• Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the
  right?

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Perceptual Priming

• What if you were shown the following slide
  earlier in the lecture?

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Perceptual Priming

• Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the
  right?

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Evidence for Separate Implicit/Explicit Systems

• Neurophysiological evidence
• Patient H.M.
• life-threatening seizures originating in temporal
  lobe
• surgically removed portions of temporal lobe

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Temporal Lobe

• Includes
• hippocampus
• amygdala

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Patient H.M.

• Surgery was effective in reducing seizures
• BUT, had other side effects as well
• Can remember explicit memories acquired before
  the surgery
• e.g., old addresses, normal vocabulary
• Cannot form NEW explicit memories
• e.g., remembering the name of someone he met 30
  minutes prior
• cannot name new world leaders or performers
• can recognize a picture of himself from before
  his surgery but not from after and doesnt
  recognize himself in a mirror

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Patient H.M.

• H.M. has severe explicit / declarative memory
  disorder
• H.M. is almost normal on procedural or implicit
  memory tasks including priming, classical
  conditioning, and learning motor skills
• This shows that explicit memory depends upon the
  temporal lobes and implicit does not

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Patient H.M. Summary

• Temporal lobe damage led to deficits in explicit,
  but not implicit memory
• H.M. had both episodic and semantic memory
  deficits
• Damage to the hippocampus alone produces
  episodic, but not semantic memory deficits
• Why did H.M. show both types of explicit memory
  deficits?
• He had damage not only to hippocampus, but to
  other structures as well

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Hippocampal Damage

• Deficits in forming new explicit memories