Sensory memory

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Sensory memory Short term memory

• Part I
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What is memory ?

• Processes involved retaining, retrieving, using
  information
• Original information is no longer present

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Memory

• Time machine (mental time travel)
• To go back just a moment
• To the words you read at the beginning of the
  sentence
• To go back many years
• To events as early as a childhood birthday party

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Memory

• Time machine Mental time travel
• Place you back in situation
• Remember what we need to do later
• Remember facts we have learned
• Use skills we have acquired
• Day-to-day activities

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Memory

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  ??????? ( re experiencing )
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Create a Top 10 list of What you use memory
for ?

• Student top 5 items
• Material for exams
• Their daily schedule
• Names
• Phone numbers
• Directions to places

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Top 10 list of purposeswhat you use memory for

• Answer Differ from the ones to the others
• Student material for exams
• Construction worker framing a house
• Homemaker cleaning the house
• Business executive ???
• Politicians ???

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Top 10 list of purposeswhat you use memory for

• Most Day-to-day activities
• Labeling familiar objects Book is ??
• Having conversations talking , Q A
• Knowing what to do in restaurant paying check
• Finding the way to somewhere map

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How important of memory..

• When people lose their memory..
• What happens to peoples lives..
• For example Clive Wearing

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Clive Wearing

• Musician choral director in England
• Viral encephalitis destroyed temporal lobe
• Cannot forming new memories ( LTM )
• Remember what just happen
• Then forget everything else
• Problem he react like 1st meet when he meet
  someone in a few minutes again

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Clive Wearings diary

• He has no memory of ever writing anything except
  for the sentence he has just written
• He is confused
• He record events in his handwriting
• He has no memory for writing events
• He denies that events are his

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Important of memory

• Wearing lives totally within a few minutes
• He describes his life as being like death
• He has no ability to have normal life
• He cannot participate in life in any meaningful
  way
• He need to be constantly cared for by others

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Chapter summery 1

• Memory is the process involved in retaining,
  retrieving, and using information about stimuli,
  images, events, ideas, and skills after the
  original information is no longer present.
• It is important for dealing with day-to-day
  events, and cases such as Clive Wearings
  illustrate the importance of memory for normal
  functioning.

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basic principles of memory

• The modal model of memory
• Richard Atkinson Richard Shiffrin s 1968
• Proposed 40 years ago

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Stages of modal model

• Called structural features of the model
• There are 3 major structural features
• Sensory memory
• Short-term memory
• Long-term memory

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Structural features

• 1 sensory memory
• Initial stage
• Holds all incoming information for seconds or
  fractions of a second
• 2 short-term memory STM
• Holds 5-7 items for about 15-20 seconds.
• 3 long-term memory LTM
• Hold a large amount of information for years or
  even decades.

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Control processes

• Active processes that can be controlled by the
  person and may differ from one task to another.
• For example
• Rehearsal , Attention , Relating

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Rehearsal

• Repeating a stimulus over and over
• You might repeat a telephone number in order to
  hold it in your mind after looking it up in the
  phone book.

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Attention

• You selectively focus on other information you
  want to remember

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Relating

• Relating the numbers in a phone number to a
  familiar date in history

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Phone number for Mineos Pizza

• Rachel looks up the number in a phone book
• All of the information that enters her eyes is
  registered in sensory memory.
• Rachel focuses on the number for Mineos pizza
  using the control process of selective attention,
  so the number enters STM
• Rachel uses the control process of rehearsal to
  keep it there

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Phone number for Mineos Pizza

• After Rachel has dialed the phone number
• She may forget it because it has not been
  transferred into long-term memory.
• She decides to memorize the number so next time
  she wont have to look it up in the phone book.
• Transfers the number into LTM

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Phone number for Mineos Pizza

• A few days later,
• When Rachels urge for pizza returns, she
  remembers the number.
• The information must be retrieved from LTM so it
  can reenter STM to be used.

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Chapter summery 2

• Atkinson and Shiffrins modal model of memory
  consists of three structural features sensory
  memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
• Another feature of the model is control process
  such as rehearsal and attentional strategies.

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Sensory memory

• Sensory memory is the retention,
• for brief periods of time,
• of the effects of sensory stimulation.
• Example Brief retention for the effects of
  visual stimulation
• The trail left by a moving sparkler
• The experience of seeing a film

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The sparklers trial

• A sparkler can cause a trail of light when it
  moved rapidly.
• The lighted trail is a creation of your mind,
  which retains a perception of the sparklers
  light for a fraction of a second.
• This retention of the perception of light in your
  mind is called the persistence of vision.

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Projectors shutter

• A person viewing the film
• sees the progression of still images as movement
• doesnt see the dark intervals between the images
  because the persistence of vision fills in the
  darkness by retaining the image of previous frame.

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Flickers of film

• The period between the images is too long (more
  than 24 times/sec.)
• Longer dark interval
• The mind cant fill in the darkness completely
• A person perceive a flickering effect

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Sperlings experiment Measuring the visual icon

• Icon image
• An array of letters (12 icon in matrix)
• Flashed on the screen for 50 ms.
• 50 ms 50/1000 sec.
• Asked participants to report a whole

XMLT AFNB CDZP
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Sperlings experiment Measuring the visual icon

• The whole report method
• They were able to report an average of 4.5 out of
  the 12 letters
• Concluded ??? the exposure was brief,
  participants saw only an average of 4.5 of the 12
  letters
• Perhaps ??? participants saw most of the
  letters immediately, but their perception faded
  rapidly

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Sperlings experiment Measuring the visual icon

• Determine which of 2 possibilities is correct
• Partial report method
• Flashed the matrix for 50 ms
• Immediately after it was flashed (turned off)
• Sounded one of the following cues tones
• High pitched top row
• Medium-pitched middle row
• Low-pitched bottom row
• To indicate which row of letters the participants
  were to report

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Sperlings experiment Measuring the visual icon

• Partial report method
• Sound after flashed off
• Actual letters were no longer present
• Participants attention was directed not to the
  actual letters
• Participants attention was directed to whatever
  trace remained in their mind
• Cues tones directed participants to focus their
  attention onto one of the rows

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Sperlings experiment Measuring the visual icon

• Partial report method
• Result they correctly reported an average of
  about 3.3 of the 4 letters (82 )
• Conclude they saw 82 of letters
• They were not able to report all of these letters
  because they rapidly faded as the initial letters
  were being reported

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Sperlings experiment Measuring the visual icon

• To determine the time course of this fading
• Delayed partial report method
• The presentation of cue tones was delayed for a
  fraction of a second after the letters were
  extinguished
• Result delayed for ½ second ? report only
  slightly more than 1 letter in a row
• Result same number of whole report method

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Sperlings experiment

• Immediately after flashed off
• All or most (82) of stimulus is available for
  perception
• This is sensory memory
• Sensory memory registers all or most of the
  information that hits our visual receptors

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Sperlings experiment

• Over the next second after flashed off
• Sensory memory fades
• Information decays within less than second

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Sperlings experiment

• A short-lived sensory memory registers all or
  most of the information that hits our visual
  receptors
• Capacity of sensory memory large
• but that this information decays within less than
  a second.
• Duration of sensory memory brief

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Duration of sensory memory

• Sensory memory for visual stimuli
• Iconic memory visual icon
• Persistence of vision
• Duration less than one second
• Sensory memory for auditory stimuli
• Echoic memory
• Persistence of sound
• Duration lasts for a few second

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Important of sensory memory

• Collecting information to be processed
• Holding the information briefly while initial
  processing is going on
• Filling in the blanks when stimulation is
  intermittent

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Chapter summery 3

• Sperling used two methods, whole report and
  partial report, to determine the capacity and
  time course of visual sensory memory.
• The duration of visual sensory memory (iconic
  memory) is less than 1 second,
• The duration of auditory sensory memory (echoic
  memory) is about 2-4 seconds.

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Short-term memory

• Brief duration
• What is the duration of STM ?
• Most of information is lost
• How much information can STM hold ?
• Some of information store to be long-term memory

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Short-term memory

• Whatever you are thinking about right now, or
  remember from what you just read, is in your STM
• How do we understand this sentence ?
• The human brain is involved in everything we
  know about the important things in life, like
  music and dancing

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What is duration of STM ?

• John Brown , Lloyd Peterson , Margaret Peterson
  experiments to determine the duration of STM
• Remembering three letters
• Tell the person that you are going to read three
  letters followed by a number
• Once the person hears the number he should start
  counting backward by 3s from that number
• When say Recall write down the three letters
  heard at the beginning
• Once the person start counting,
• time 20 seconds and say Recall

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Remembering 3 letters

• Peterson and Petersons results
• 3-second delay 80 remember of letters
• 18-second delay 10 remember of letters
• Participants forgot the letters because their
  memory trace decayed during the 18 seconds

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Remembering 3 letters

• Petersons results ? performance average over
  many trials
• G. Keppel and Benton Underwood (1962)
• Re-analysis Petersons results
• Re-analysis ? compared 1st 3rd trial performance

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Remembering 3 letters

• G. Keppel and Benton Underwood
• First trial a little falloff
• Third trial seeing a drop-off
• Why would memory become worse after a few trial ?
• The drop-off in memory was due to proactive
  interference (PI) interference that occurs when
  information that was learned previously
  interferes with learning new information

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Proactive interference

• What might happen when Rachel calls the number
  she had memorized for Mineos Pizza (521-5100)
  changed to 522-4100
• Rachel tries to remember the new number
• She make mistakes at first
• PI is causing her memory for the old number to
  interfere with her memory for the new number

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Proactive interference

• Old number 521-5100
• New number 522-4100
• New number is similar to the old one
• Old number adds to the interference
• Old number makes it harder to remember the new
  number

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Proactive interference (PI)

• PI is a basic mechanism of forgetting
• PI is about 15 20 sec.
• PI ? Rehearsal is prevented
• ? outcome of PI
• effective duration of STM
• ? decreased

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Chapter summery 4

• Short-term memory is our window on the present.
• Brown, and Peterson, determined that the duration
  of STM is about 15-20 seconds.
• They interpreted the short duration of STM as
  being caused by decay, but a later reanalysis of
  their data indicated it was due to proactive
  interference.

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What is the capacity of STM ?

• The information is not only lost rapidly from
  STM, but there is a limit to how much information
  can be held there.
• This capacity can be measured by Digit span ( the
  number of digits a person can remember ).

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Coglab Digit span

• Using an index card or piece of paper, cover all
  of the numbers below

2 1 4 9 3 9 6 7 8 6 4 9 7 8 4 7 3 8 2 0 1 5
8 4 2 6 1 4 3 2 4 8 2 3 9 2 8 0 7 5 8 5 2 9 8 1
6 3 7
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Coglab Digit span

• Move the card down to uncover the first string of
  numbers.

2 1 4 9 3 9 6 7 8 6 4 9 7 8 4 7 3 8 2 0 1 5
8 4 2 6 1 4 3 2 4 8 2 3 9 2 8 0 7 5 8 5 2 9 8 1
6 3 7
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Coglab Digit span

• Read the numbers , cover them up, and then write
  them down in the correct order.

2 1 4 9 3 9 6 7 8 6 4 9 7 8 4 7 3 8 2 0 1 5
8 4 2 6 1 4 3 2 4 8 2 3 9 2 8 0 7 5 8 5 2 9 8 1
6 3 7
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Coglab Digit span

• Then move the card to the next string and repeat
  this procedure until you begin making errors.

2 1 4 9 3 9 6 7 8 6 4 9 7 8 4 7 3 8 2 0 1 5
8 4 2 6 1 4 3 2 4 8 2 3 9 2 8 0 7 5 8 5 2 9 8 1
6 3 7
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Coglab Digit span

• The longest string you are able to reproduce
  without error is your digit span.
• The typical span is
• between 5 and 8

2 1 4 9 3 9 6 7 8 6 4 9 7 8 4 7 3 8 2 0 1 5
8 4 2 6 1 4 3 2 4 8 2 3 9 2 8 0 7 5 8 5 2 9 8 1
6 3 7
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What is the capacity of STM ?

• This capacity can be measured by Digit span ( the
  number of digits a person can remember )
• The typical span is between 5 and 8 digits
• According to measurements of digit span, the
  capacity of STM is 5 8 items.

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The magic number sevenplus or minus two

• George Miller (1956) chunking concept
• The famous paper titled The magic number
  seven, plus or minus two
• Explain How we remember words and combinations
  of words ?

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How we remember words and combinations of words

• Trying to remember the following words
• Monkey
• Child
• Wildly
• Zoo
• Jumped
• City
• Ringtail
• Young

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How we remember words and combinations of words

• How to remember
• How many units are there in this list ?
• 8 words 4 pairs
• Ringtail monkey
• Jumped wildly
• Young child
• City zoo
• We can take this one step further by arranging
  these groups of words into one sentence.
• The ringtail monkey jumped wildly for the young
  child at the city zoo.

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How we remember words and combinations of words

• Is the sentence about the child watching a monkey
  at the zoo 8 items, 4 items or 1 item ?
• Small units (like words) can be combined into
  larger meaningful units (like phrases), or even
  larger units (like sentences, paragraphs, stories)

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Concept of chunking

• Chunk a collection of elements that are
  strongly associated with one another but are
  weakly associated with elements in other chunks
• Ringtail
• Associated with monkey
• Not ass. with child , jumped

The ringtail monkey jumped wildly for the
young child at the city zoo
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Concept of chunking

• We can recall a sequence of 5 8 words
• Chunking increase the memory span to 20 words or
  more
• Meaning can increase our ability to hold
  information in STM

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K. Anders Ericcson and coworkers (1980)

• S.F. participant typical 7 digits span
• After extensive training 79 digits span
• How did he do it ?
• 3492 3 min and 49.2 sec , near world record
  mile time
• 893 89.3 , very old man
• S.F. was a runner used memory stored in LTM about
  runner times
• S.F. used a chunk to remember best

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Concept of chunking

• William Chase Herbert Simon
• They showed chess players pictures of chess
  pieces on a chessboard for 5 sec
• Then asked to produce the positions they had seen
• Results compared chess master beginner

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Concept of chunking

• William Chase Herbert Simon
• Actual game positions
• Chess master correct 16 / 24 ( 1st try )
• Beginner correct 4 / 24 ( 1st try )

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Concept of chunking

• William Chase Herbert Simon
• Actual game positions
• Chess master correct 24 / 24 ( 4th try )
• Beginner still incorrect ( 7th try )

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Concept of chunking

• William Chase Herbert Simon
• Random positions
• Chess master 3 / 24
• Beginner 3 / 24

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Concept of chunking

• Actual game positions master superiorly
• His ability to group the chess pieces into
  meaningful chunks
• Used interaction between STM LTM
• Random positions master vanished

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Concept of chunking

• Chunking is an essential feature of STM because
  it expands the capacity of STM so it can handle
  5-8 chunks rather than just 5-8 items
• This enables the limited-capacity STM to deal
  with the large amount of information involved in
  many of tasks we perform everyday ( chunking
  letters into words as you read )

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Chapter summery 5

• The capacity of STM is 5-8 items, as measured by
  digit span.
• This capacity can be expanded by chunking, so
  that it is possible to remember 5-8 chunks rather
  than 5-8 digits.
• Examples of chunking are the memory performance
  of the runner S.F. and how chess masters use
  their knowledge of chess to remember chess piece
  positions.

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How is information coded in STM ?

• Coding the way information is represented
• Physiological approach to coding How a stimuli
  is represented by the firing of a number of
  neurons
• Mental approach to coding How a stimuli or an
  experience is represented in the mind

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Physiological approach to coding Distributed
code

• 1gt2gt3
• 1ltlt2gt3
• 1lt2lt3
• 1lt2gtgt3
• 1gtgt2ltlt3

• Bill
• Samantha
• Roger
• Grace
• Ellen

Groups of neurons firing different pattern
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Mental approach to coding

• After you have just finished listening lecture
• Some of ways you might remember what happened in
  class
• Remembering the sound of your professors voice
• Imagining what your professor looks like
• Remembering what your professor was talking about

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Auditory coding

• R. Conrad 1964
• Participants saw a number of target letters
  flashed briefly on a screen
• Participants were told to write down the letters
  in the order they were presented
• Finding when participants made errors, they
  were most likely to misidentify the target letter
  as another letter that sound like the target ( F
  ? S , X )

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Auditory coding

• Conrad concluded
• Code for STM is auditory
• ( based on the sound of stimulus ),
• rather than visual
• ( based on the visual appearance of the
  stimulus )

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Visual coding examples

• Remembering the details of a diagram or an
  architectural floor plan, require visual codes
• Radicals Characters in Chinese language

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Visual coding

• Guojun Zhang and Herbert Simon 1985
• Presented Chinese language symbols to
  native-speaking Chinese participants
• Stimuli Radicals , Characters
• Radicals symbols that are part of Chinese
  language that are not associated with any sound
• Characters consist of a radical plus another
  symbol do have sound

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Visual coding

• Participants were asked to reproduced a series of
  Characters
• They were able to reproduce a string of 2.7
  radicals recall based on visual coding
• They were able to reproduced a string of 6.4
  characters greater recall when auditory coding

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Visual coding / Auditory coding

• Both involved in STM
• Superior memory for Characters from
• Characters ? has sound / auditory coding
• Radicals ? no sound , no meaning / visual coding

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Semantic coding

• Delos Wickens and coworkers 1976
• 3 different groups of participants
• A professions group
• A meat group
• A fruit group
• Each group listened to 3 words, counted backward
  for 15 sec, then attempted to recall 3 words
• Repeated 4 trial, different words in each trial

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Wickens experiment result

• Trial 2 3 decrease in due to build up PI (
  Proactive Interference )
• Trial 4 same category remain low for fruit
  group
• Trial 4 switch category release from PI in
  Profession Meat groups ? improved

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Wickens experiment concluded

• The release from PI depends on the words
  categories ( fruit, meat, profession )
• Different categories different meaning
• This results demonstrate the operation of
  semantic coding in STM

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Chapter summery 6

• Information can be coded in STM in terms of sound
  (auditory coding), vision (visual coding), and
  meaning (semantic coding).
• Auditory coding was illustrated by Conrads
  experiment that analyzed the type of errors made
  in memory for letters.
• Visual coding was illustrated by Zhang and
  Simons experiment with Chinese characters,
• semantic coding by Wickens release from
  proactive interference experiment

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Working memory

• ??. ?????? ????????????????

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Working memory

• Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch 1974
• The modern model of memory
• STM be replaced by working memory
• Working memory a mechanism that consists of a
  number of specialized components

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Working memory

• Reading text Remember numbers
• Keep these numbers in your mind ( 7 1 4 9 ) as
  you read the following passage
• Baddeley reasoned that if STM had a limited
  storage capacity of about the length of a
  telephone number, filling up the storage capacity
  should make it difficult to do other tasks that
  depend on STM. But he found that participants
  could hold a short string of numbers in their
  memory while carrying out another task, such as
  reading or even solving a simple word problem.
  How are you doing with this task? What are the
  numbers ? What is the gist of what you just read?

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Working memory

• Reading text Remember numbers
• How are you doing with this task ?
• What are the numbers ?
• What is the gist of what you just read ?

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Working memory

• Reading text Remember numbers
• Baddeley s participants were able to read while
  simultaneously remembering numbers
• Digit span task handled by one component
• Comprehending the paragraph handled by the
  others
• Concluded the short term process must consist
  of a number of components that can function
  separately

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Working memory

• Baddeley decided the name of the short term
  process should be changed from STM to working
  memory
• Working memory a limited-capacity system for
  temporary storage and manipulation of information
  for complex tasks such as comprehension,
  learning, reasoning

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Working memory

• Working memory differs from STM
• STM is a single component,
• whereas working memory consists of a number of
  parts
• STM is with holding information for a brief
  period of time,
• whereas working memory is concerned with the
  manipulation of information that occurs during
  complex cognition
• Problem solving
• Thinking
• Attention
• language

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Chapter summery 7

• The short-term memory component of the modal
  model was revised by Baddeley in order to deal
  with results that couldnt be explained by a
  single short-term process.
• In this new model, working memory replaces STM

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Atkinson and Shiffrins model of memory
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Working memory

• Manipulation of information through the action of
  3 components
• Phonological loop verbal auditory
  information
• Visuospatial sketch pad visual spatial
  information
• Central executive

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Phonological loop

• Holds verbal and auditory information
• Example
• When you try to remember a telephone number or a
  persons name
• Try to understand what your professor is talking
  about

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Visuospatial sketch patch

• Holds visual spatial information
• Example
• When you form a picture in your mind
• To do a tasks like solving a puzzle
• Finding your way around campus

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Central executive

• Central executive pulls information from LTM
• Central executive coordinates the activity of the
  phonological loop and visuospatial sketch patch
  by
• focusing on specific parts of a task
• switching attention from one part to another
• Central executive is where the major work of
  working memory occurs

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Central executive

• To decide how to divide attention between
  different tasks
• Imaging you are driving in a strange city
• The news is broadcast on the car radio
• A friend in the passenger seat is reading you
  directions to a restaurant
• phonological loop verbal direction
• sketch pad visualized a map of streets
• Central executive coordinating combining both
• Central executive ignore the car radio

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Chapter summery 8

• Working memory is a limited-capacity system for
  storage and manipulation of information in
  complex tasks.
• It consists of three components
• the phonological loop, which holds auditory or
  verbal information,
• the visuospatial sketch pad, which holds visual
  and spatial information,
• the central executive, which coordinates the
  action of the phonological loop and visuospatial
  sketch pad.

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Phonological loop

• Phenomena support the idea of a system
  specialized for language
• The phonological similarity
• The word - length effect
• Articulatory suppression

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Phonological similarity effect

• Conrads experiment showed that people often
  confuse similar-sounding letters
• T , P
• F , X , S
• Result Auditory coding in STM
• Words are processed in the phonological loop of
  working memory

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Phonological similarity effect

• Task 1 Slowly read the following letters. Look
  away and count to 15. Then write them down.
• g c b t v p
• Task 2 Now do the same thing for these letters.
• f l k s y g

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Phonological similarity effect

• Which of the two tasks was more difficult?
• Task 1 more difficult
• Task 1 similar-sounding letters
• People confuse the similar sounding letters and
  report letters that werent present ( d e z )

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Phonological similarity effect

• occurs when letters or words that sound similar
  are confused

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Word-Length effect

• Task 1 Read the following words, look away, and
  then write down the words you remember.
• beast, bronze, wife, golf, inn, limb, dirt, star
• Task 2 Now do the same thing for the following
  list.
• alcohol, property, amplifier, officer, gallery,
  mosquito, orchestra, bricklayer

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Word-Length effect

• Which of the 2 tasks was more difficult ?
• Task 2 more difficult
• Task 2 the words more longer
• Longer words takes longer ..
• to rehearse the long words
• to produce them during recall

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Word-Length effect

• occurs when memory ( for lists of words ) is
  better for short words than for long words

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Word-Length effect

• English numbers
• one two three four five six
• Welsh numbers
• un dau tri pedwar pump chwech
• English more shorter easier than Welsh
• American children have a larger digit span than
  Welsh children

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Word-Length effect

• People are able to remember the number of items
  that they can pronounce in about 1.5 2.0 sec
• Try to counting out loud, as fast as you can, for
  2 sec
• The number of words you can say should be close
  to your digit span

128
Articulatory suppression

• Task 1 Read following list. Then turn away and
  recall as many words as you can.
• Dishwasher, hummingbird, engineering, hospital,
  homelessness, reasoning
• Task 2 Read the following list while repeating
  the word the out loud. Then turn away and
  recall as many words as you can.
• Automobile, apartment, basketball, mathematics,
  syllogism, Catholicism

129
Articulatory suppression

• Which of the 2 tasks was more difficult ?
• Task 2 harder
• Task 2 repeating the, the, the, overloads the
  phonological loop.
• The, the, the,.reduces the ability to remember
  lists of words

130
Articulatory suppression

• occurs when a person is prevented from rehearsing
  items to be remembered by repeating an irrelevant
  sound
• such as the
• ( the, the, the, )

131
Articulatory suppression

• Eliminates the word-length effect
• short word leave more space for rehearsal
• The, the, the, eliminates this rehearsal
  advantage for short words

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Articulatory suppression

• Reduces the phonological similarity effect
• reading initially represented in the
  visuospatial sketch pad,
• and then transferred to the phonological loop
• The phonological loop is engaged by the, the,
  the,

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Articulatory suppression

• Articulatory suppression has 3 effects
• it reduces the memory span speaking interferes
  with rehearsal
• it eliminates the word-length effect
• it reduces the phonological similarity effect for
  reading words

137
Chapter summery 9

• The following effects can be explained in terms
  of operation of the phonological loop
• (a) phonological similarity effect
• (b) word-length effect
• (c) articulatory suppression

138
Visuospatial sketch pad

• Lee Brooks experiments 1968
• Holding a verbal stimulus in the mind
• Task 1 memorize the sentence below, and then
  without looking at it, consider each word in
  order and say yes if it is a noun and no if
  it isnt a noun
• John ran to the store to buy some oranges

139
Visuospatial sketch pad

• Holding a verbal stimulus in the mind
• Task 2 memorize the sentence below, and then
  use fig. 5.18 to indicate whether each word in
  the order it appears in the sentence, point to
  the Y if the word is a noun and to the N if
  it isnt ( move down a row in the display in fig.
  5.18 for each new word )
• The bird flew out the window to the tree

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Visuospatial sketch pad

• Holding a verbal stimulus in the mind
• Which of the 2 tasks was more difficult ?
• Task 1 said Yes or No ? more difficult
• Task 1 stimulus task ? verbal ? overload
  phonological loop
• Task 2 stimulus ? verbal , task ? spatial
• Task 2 the processing was distributed between
  the loop and sketch pad ? task 2 easier

142
Visuospatial sketch pad

• Holding a verbal stimulus in the mind
• Holding the sentence verbal task
• Saying yes or no verbal task
• Pointing to Y or N spatial task
• Task 1 overloading phonological loop
• Task 2 distributing processing across both

143
Visuospatial sketch pad

• Holding a spatial stimulus in the mind
• Task 3 visualize the F in fig. 5.20.
• then look away from the figure,
• and while visualizing the F in your mind,
• start at the upper left corner ( the one marked
  with the )

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Visuospatial sketch pad

• Holding a spatial stimulus in the mind
• Task 3
• visualizing the F in your mind,
• start at the upper left corner ( the one marked
  with the )
• moving around the outline of the F in a clockwise
  direction in your mind,
• point to Y in fig. 5.18 for an outside corner,
  and N for an inside corner

146
Visuospatial sketch pad

• Holding a spatial stimulus in the mind

F
Y Y Y N
147
Visuospatial sketch pad

• Holding a spatial stimulus in the mind
• task 4 visualize the F again,
• but this time, as you move around the outline
  of the F in a clockwise direction in your mind,
• say yes if the corner is an outside corner (
  like the first one )
• or no if it is an inside corner

148
Visuospatial sketch pad

• Holding a spatial stimulus in the mind
• Which was easier, pointing to Y or N or
  saying yes or no ?
• saying yes or no is easier

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150
Visuospatial sketch pad

• Holding a spatial stimulus in the mind
• Holding the F in the mind spatial task
• Saying yes or no verbal task
• Pointing to Y or N spatial task
• Task 3 overloading to spatial task
• Task 4 distributing processing across both

151
Chapter summery 10

• Brooks did some experiments that indicated that
  two tasks can be handled simultaneously if one
  involves the visuospatial sketch pad and the
  other involves the phonological loop.
• Performance decreases if one component of working
  memory is called on to deal with two tasks
  simultaneously.

152
Central executive

• Does most of the work of working memory
• Coordinates the operation of the phonological
  loop visuospatial sketch pad
• Paying attention to relevant information
• Controlling the suppression of irrelevant
  information

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Central executive

• Coordinate
• phonological loop visuospatial sketch pad
• Listening to the friend guiding the way
• Looking for street when driving a car

155
Central executive

• Suppresses irrelevant information pays
  attention relevant information
• Ignore radio sound
• Select friend voice

156
Central Executive

• Adam Gazzaley and coworkers 2005
• face relevant task
• Participants were told to remember the faces and
  ignore the scenes when the four cue stimuli ( 2
  faces 2 scenes ) were presented
• After 9 second delay
• Indicate whether the face presented during the
  test period matched one of the cue faces

157
Central Executive

• Adam Gazzaley and coworkers 2005
• passive task
• Participants just looked at the pictures
• and pressed a button indicating the direction of
  the arrow during the test

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Central Executive

• Adam Gazzaley and coworkers 2005
• Measured the fMRI response of an area in the
  temporal cortex that responed to scenes
• Measured how accurately participants were able to
  indicate whether the test face matched the cue
  faces

160
Central Executive

• Adam Gazzaley and coworkers 2005
• Results 2 groups of participants
• good suppressors less brain activity
• poor suppressors greater brain activity when
  they were supposed to be ignoring the scenes than
  during the passive condition

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Central Executive

• Adam Gazzaley and coworkers 2005
• Good suppressors 89 correctly
• Poor suppressors 67 correctly
• Concluded the ability to suppress irrelevant
  information, which is a central executive
  function, results in better memory for relevant
  information

163
Chapter summery 11

• Researchers are just beginning to understand the
  functioning of the central executive.
• One function, the suppression of irrelevant
  information, was studied by Gazzaley by measuring
  brain activity and memory performance during a
  memory task that involved suppression.
• The results of this experiment showed that
  greater suppression, measured by brain activity,
  was associated with better performance in the
  memory task.

164
Update on model

• STM (Atkinson, Shiffrin) ? working memory
  (Baddeley)
• Cant explain some results
• The,the,the,. ? decrease in memory span ( but
  only slightly 7 ? 5 )
• Should decrease more than this results

165
Baddeleys revised working memory model

• Added episodic buffer
• Models designed to explain mental functioning are
  constantly being refined and modified to explain
  new results

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Episodic buffer

• Episodic buffer is basically a backup store
  that communicates with both LTM and the
  components of working memory
• It can hold information longer
• It has greater capacity
• than phonological loop or spatial sketch pad

168
Chapter summery 12

• The working memory model has been updated to
  include an additional component called the
  episodic buffer, which has a greater capacity and
  can hold information longer than the phonological
  loop or visuospatial sketch pad.

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Working memory Brain

• Prefrontal cortex ( PF ) Working memory
• Receives input from the sensory areas (
  processing incoming visual auditory information
  )
• Receives signals from areas involved in carrying
  out actions
• Is connected to areas in the temporal cortex that
  are important for forming LTM

171
Prefrontal cortex working M.
172
Delayed-response task

• Experiment in monkey
• Task
• Monkey ? hold information in working memory
• Delay period
• Retrieve information in working memory

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Delayed-response task

• Task
• Monkey sees a food reward in one of two food
  wells
• Both wells are then covered
• A screen is lowered
• Delay
• Screen is raised again
• Monkey reach a food wells
• Correct ? obtain a reward
• Incorrect ? no reward

175
Working memory Brain

• delayed-response task in trained-monkeys

Observe
Delay
Correct reward
176
Working memory Brain

• in prefrontal cortex damaged-monkeys

X
Removed prefrontal cortex ? correct by change
177
Chapter summery 13

• Behaviors that depend on working memory can be
  disrupted by damage to the prefrontal cortex.
• This has been demonstrated by testing monkeys on
  the delayed response task.

178
Working memory Brain

• Prefrontal cortex damage / removed
• Infants younger than 8 months not develop
• Out of sight , Out of mind

179
Neuron that hold information

• Shintaro Funahashi and coworkers 1989
• Recorded from neurons in a monkeys PF
• Delayed-response task

x
x
--ll----------------
-------llllllllllllllllll-
---------------ll--
180
Shintaro Funahashi coworkers 1989

• Recorded from neurons in a monkeys prefrontal
  cortex
• While it carried out a delayed-response task
• To confirm
• prefrontal cortex / working memory
• Memory
• Hold information after the original stimulus is
  no longer present

181
Neuron that hold information

• Monkey first looked at a fixation point X
• Square was flashed ? then off
• After delay off fixation X

x
x
--ll----------------
-------llllllllllllllllll-
---------------ll--
182
Neuron that hold information

• Shintaro Funahashi and coworkers 1989
• Monkey move eyes
• to where the square has been flashed
• Monkey remembered the location of the square

183
Neuron that hold information

• Funahashi found neurons that responded when the
  square was flashed in a particular location and
  that the neurons continued responding delay

x
x
--ll----------------
-------llllllllllllllllll-
---------------ll--
184
Neuron that hold information

• The firing of these neurons indicates that an
  object was presented at a particular place, and
  this information remains available for as long as
  these neurons continue firing

x
x
--ll----------------
-------llllllllllllllllll-
---------------ll--
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Neuron that hold information

• Neurons from many brain areas that response
  during delay in a working memory
• Primary visual cortex receives visual signals
• Inferotemporal cortex a visual area responsible
  for perceiving complex forms
• PF prefrontal cortex working memory

187
Chapter summery 14

• There are neurons in the prefrontal cortex that
  fire to presentation of a stimulus and continue
  firing as this stimulus is held in memory.

188
Brain imaging in humans

• PET ,fMRI
• Showed many area are involved in working memory
  prefrontal, frontal, parietal, cerebellum

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Chapter summery 15

• Brain imaging experiments in humans reveal that a
  large number of brain areas are involved in
  working memory.

191
American sign language

• Visual language
• ? visuospatial sketch pad
• Contain specific gestures (hand arm)
• Used by deaf people

192
Margaret Wilson andKaren Emmorey 1977

• Showed that
• ASL have phonological similarity effect
• ASL have word-length effects

193
Memory for lists of words that are signed
similarly is worse than memory for words that
are signed differently
Memory is worse for words that have signs
that take longer to produce
194
Concluded of Wilson Emmorey

• ASL have phenomenon of phonological loop
  (phonological similarity word-length effect)
• Phonological loop appears to process language
  input regardless of whether the language is
  created by sound or by gestures

195
Finger spelling for measures memory
span Compared digit span of spoken language
196
Results of memory span from 2 studys
Blue letter span Gray digit span
197
Memory span

• Spoken language digit span
• ASL letter span (finger spelling)
• Different results from different experiment
• Different procedure, stimuli, participants

198
Wilson Emmorey results

• No difference in letter span for speaking
  signing
• Duration others factors are equated
• Suggest working memory capacity for speaking
  signing is the same

199
Bavelier coworkers results

• There is a difference in letter span for speaking
  and signing
• Suggest working memory capacity for speaking
  and signing may differ in capacity
• Perhaps due to differences between the memory
  mechanisms for auditory and visual stimuli

200
Chapter summery 16

• Comparisons of working memory for signers who use
  ASL and speakers of English show that the
  phonological similarity effect and word-length
  effect occur for both.
• There is controversy regarding whether digit span
  is different for speakers and signers, but tests
  of more complex language abilities indicate no
  difference between signers and speakers.